The Elementary, 1582

By Richard Mulcaster
(based on the edition reproduced by Scholar Press Facsimilie, 1970)

Why I begin at the elementary, and wherein it consisteth.

There be two causes which move me to the penning of this Elementary; whereof the one is my own promise, the other is the argument itself. The argument itself persuades me to the penning thereof, because it is so fit for the training up of children, as nothing can be fitter: and the stream of discourse in my former book, which I name Positions, did carry me on to promise it, and binds me to perform it. But for the better linking of this book to that, seeing this is nothing else but the performing of one piece, which I promised in that, I must needs shortly run over the main branches of that, ere I enter into this. The matter of that book consisteth chiefly in two general points, the one proper, the other proceeding. I call that argument proper, which is the natural subject of that same book, and being once handled there desires no further speech in any other treatise. I call that proceeding which being but named there as a thing most necessary to some further end, requireth more handling than it hath there, to be better fitted for so profitable an end. Of the first sort, which is the proper inhabitant of that same book, and to be enquired for there, all those discourses be which concern the teacher or the learner's person, which concern the place to teach or learn in, which concern the time, both when to begin, and how long to continue, and such other circumstances, which being once entreated of discharge my pen from dealing with them further, though they do not discharge the magistrates of my country from heading of them better. Because they be very full of profit, though somewhat hard of performance, through those natural difficulties which profess enmity to all good things, and would shoulder them out, for taking any place, either at their first planting, when they are to be received, or upon default, when they are to be redressed. Good things grow on very hardly at their first planting, because that profit which they promise at their entry hath not yet been proved, and therefore wanteth the commendation of trial, which is the very best mean to enforce persuasion: and their pretence to be profitable upon some probability in sequel is a great inducement indeed but to those people which can foresee ere they feel, but of small importance to them which cannot see till they feel. Good things find hard footing when they are to be reformed after a corruption in use, because of that enormity which is in possession and usurpeth on their place, which having strengthened itself by all circumstances that can move retaining, and with all difficulties that can dissuade alteration, fighteth sore for itself, and hard against redress, through the general assistance of a prejudicate opinion in those men's heads which might further the redress. Which prejudice in opinion being grounded upon contentment with the acquainted evil, and loath to enter danger for a change of some trouble, so bewitcheth the reason of the parties seduced, as drink doth that fellow which will rather lie in a ditch all night and call for more clothes when he feeleth more cold, and bid put out the candle when he seeth the moon shine, than he will either be persuaded, that he is drunk at all, or else be entreated to get up and go home: Though yet at the last some of his wise friends foreseeing the danger of some sickness like to follow if he lie there long get him home perforce. Such a strength is error of being baked with long ease, which brings ignorance asleep: and with security in persuasion, which never breeds but ill.

Howbeit for that book, and those persuasions, I must pray my good countrymen, to think upon them well, even for their own sakes. It is the general good that hath enforced me to that particular wish. Neither do I repent myself for the wishing thereof, though the speeding be far off: as I am also most ready with all patience to digest all such difficulties, all such thwartings, all such tongue stings, as that kind of wish, being fruitless for the time, useth to bring with it, to check and choke a writer. For I fear not in the end, but that the extremity of some evil, though not the excellency of some good, will enforce a reformation by them which have power and authority to redress. At which time my labour shall find fruit, though myself be not found: and my wish shall take effect, though myself be no partaker. The old man planteth with the one foot in his grave, whose honest labour, though it yield himself no fruit, saving the bare hope to profit his posterity, yet God doth so prosper, as the effect followeth, though he be not to use it. And the nature of evils not naturally evil, which will never be better, but evil by abuse, which right use will better, is so loath to be amended, and so long ere it hearken to the voice of redress, as the first attempt to have some redress, the party attempter is more wondered at for the wish, than esteemed of as wise. Homer the great Greek poet deviseth a monster, which he nameth Até, and giveth her for surname the Lady of Harm, with whom he joins in fellowship three other staid matrons, which he calleth Litæ, and the Ladies of Redress, after harms be received. This Até, saith he, is so swift of wing, so strong of body, so stirring to do ill, as she flies far before, and harmeth where she lighteth. But the three good Ladies, being halt and lame, old and crooked, not a step without a staff, cannot foot it so fast, as their fellow can fly, whereupon it falleth out that harms be soon caught, but healed at leisure, when the old creping Ladies come to present a plaster, as they will come at last, though it be very long first. This hope have we wishers, though we wait long for it. And that good God who made all these things, which we so mar, as he promiseth a renewing, so is he able to perform it, whose patience in our misses we must follow in our mends. Thus much concerning those arguments which are proper to my book, that I name Positions. The other kind of matter, which is begun in that book though not ended there, is such as layeth open what things are to be followed in the course of learning, and what I myself do promise to do for the advancement thereof. The things be five in number, infinite in use, principles in place, and these in name: reading, writing, drawing, singing, and playing. Why and wherefore these five be so profitable and so fit for this place it shall appear hereafter, when their use shall come in question. In the meanwhile this is most true, that in the right course of best education to learning and knowledge, all these and only these be Elementary principles, and most necessary to be dealt withal. Whatsoever else besides these is required in that age, either to strengthen their bodies, or to quicken their wits, that is rather incident to exercise for health than Elementary for knowledge. Thus I have shown both why I begin at the Elementary, and wherein it consisteth.

That this five branched Elementary, which I seek to persuade, is very profitable and good, there be many private presumptions in our common experience, besides the general proofs, which shall follow hereafter. First, because the most of these principles be in use with us already, though not with all persons, yet sure in all places where the liking of these things and the ability to bear charge do concur in parents. Secondly, because even those which have them not, yet do wish they had them when they fall in thinking of them, upon some either pleasant or profitable object which they find wrought by them: though upon so private respect either too sparing or too precise, some kind of people either care not, forgetting them at first, or for wishing them at last, least they might seem to condemn their own selves, if they did wish for that which they would not once, as condemning that of passion, which they allow of in judgment. Besides these two, there be a number more, which our daily experience doth bring forth, whereby the goodness of this argument is evidently confirmed. And may it not seem likely to any reasonable censure, that I myself would not so force them on publicly, if they were not indeed exceedingly well warranted, with more than my own authority? For who am I to persuade the liking of so full an Elementary, not allowed of the most, neither tried of the best? A simple teacher: and yet that teaching name is not plain nothing in a matter of school. A mean companion: that is a great something, where the persuader's countenance is to carry away the thing. Nay a newfangle: that is very odious, where the old current will not lightly be changed, and the opinion of right hath both the countenance of the best and contentment of the most, whereupon to make stay. To me it may be replied, you meddle in this matter alone, you do but trouble yourself; you can not turn the course, which is ordinary and old, and therefore very strong for you to strive against; this thing which you commend is not every man's war; it will not be compassed; do you let it alone; if you will needs write, turn your pen to other matters which the state will better like of, which this time will soon allow, which you may persuade with credit if they be new and suitable, or confirm with praise, if they be old and need the file. If these and such objections were not always ordinary even to every one, in all attempts of turning either from the ill to good, or from the good to better, I would answer them with care, but now I need not, because to win a resolute good, he that wisheth to have it must think to wrestle for it, both with words and writing, against corruption of time, against the aloneness of attempt, against the prejudice of parties, against the difficulties of performance, and whatsoever else. Neither must he be discouraged with any ordinary thwarting, which is a thing well known to well travailed students, and of least account where it is best known, how fearful a thing soever it seem to weak fancies, by crossing of corruption to strive against the stream. For both the stream will turn, when a stronger tide returns, and if there be no tide, yet an untired travail will still on against it, until he be above it. And more honorable it were for some one or some few to hazard their own credit and estimation for the time in favor of such a thing as they know to be of credit, though not in account, than by too timorous a conceit, too sore afraid of a popular opinion ( not always the soundest, though most of most swing) to leave excellent arguments either destitute of defence, if they be pleaded against, or defeated of delivery, if they fortune to be called for. For may it not fall out, that such a thing as this is may be called for hereafter, though presently not cared for, through some other occasion, which hath the rudder in hand? I had therefore rather that it were ready then, to help when it were wished for, than for fear of misliking at the first setting forth, to defraud the posterity of a thing so passing good. And what if the want of convenient books, appropriate to persons, applied to things, apt for each purpose, both hath been, and be the hinderer of such helps, which would be ventured on, if men had such volumes? And in good sooth, I know not any book in this Elementary kind so thoroughly fitted for such a purpose, as I hope this shall prove. What there be in other kinds, I will then show my opinion when I come to their placing. But for this present, because there may be such counterbuffs, as I have said before, against my countenance in this persuasion, notwithstanding the good, which is more than half confessed to be in the thing, I have therefore by way of mean to work persuasion, fenced my whole choice in all these principles with the best authority of most allowed writers, who commend the use of them in one whole training, and with the greatest weight of most apparent reasons, which may persuade us thoroughly to entertain them so, as their desert is worthy, and as their worthiness deserves. Which two proofs I think may very well persuade any reasonable man, both to believe me, and to embrace them. First of all Plato, a man in these arguments very well thought of among those that be learned, examining of purpose what things be needful for the first education of young children, findeth out gymnastics for the body and music for the mind, where he construeeth music a great deal larger than we commonly do, comprising under that name speech and harmony: and therewithal implicatively he comprehendeth writing and reading for the benefit of speech, as singing and playing for the utterance of harmony, a thing not gathered in him by me in nature of any consequence, but uttered by himself in the way of his discourse. In the same place freeing poetry from fabulous and unseemly arguments, and drawing from wanton and lascivious resemblances, which he fineth both he refuseth neither: but as by cleansing poetry he proveth grammar to be but an Elementary principle, so by clearing drawing, he proves drawing to be another. Whereunto he might be the sooner moved, because Pamphilus the Macedonian, master to the famous Apelles, about the same time procured throughout all Greece that drawing should be held for the first degree of liberal science in the training up of children, and that no bondman should be admitted to use the pencil. Whereupon Pliny saith, that he never read of, neither yet ever saw any excellent piece of work painted by a bondman, though many by women. It should also seem that Aristotle's plain speech concerning drawing did take hold of that act procured by Pamphilus, who examining, as Plato did, in what things children were to be trained up, setteth down all the five principles by name and allegeth great reasons why the mind is to be fashioned by them for learning, as the body is by gymnastics for exercise. He spendeth also the most part of the eight of his politics to clear music from blame, and to prove it needful even for bettering of manners besides undoubted pleasure. Quintilian also a rhetoric master among the Romans, and of no less account in his country than he was of cunning, and so esteemed of among us, in the framing of his best orator, first nameth writing and reading, and with some earnest challenge taketh upon him the protection of music, whose two arms singing and playing be. And in the same place using the same favor to arithmetic and geometry, which perfect the pen and pencil in Apelle's opinion, as the pen and pencil be their principles in common sense, he could not but allow the one, admitting the other, as Plato did before him not refusing where he fined. In the general learner I like that disposition best, which Terence doth attribute to young Pamphilus in his comedy called Andria: in whom I observe two several properties, the one for learning, the other for behaviour. For his learning he was neither too excellent to be envied, neither too mean to be condemned, but as not above all in anything, so not beneath all in any: that much allowed mediocrity being the rule of his learning. In behaviour towards others he had acquainted himself to bear with all companies in most variety of behaviour, to yield himself to them in honesty of delight, contrarying none, condemning none, never bragging of his birth, never vaunting of his wealth. For certainly in wits this moderate kind is most contrary to the worst. If any one be too singular odd, he is fit either for value above all to be sent up to heaven, as too good for the earth; or for vice beneath all to be wished somewhere else, as the earth too good for him, as Plato dallyeth with the like speech in the like case. But those men's chief consideration in their choosing of wits is, what affection to learning each child hath by nature. Because it is hard to hail against the stream, as it is wondrous easy to row down with it. They knit up all their choice of student with this, no fancy though a fable of Plato's Protagoras, that Jupiter sent Mercury down into the world to distribute learning and virtue among those of the world. In which his distribution he gave learning to people, according as they were inclined by nature: but he gave them virtue, which he divided into a remorse to do ill and a desire to do right, according to necessity, which was to have as few men learned as they were inclined, but to have all men virtuous as they ought to be inclined. Because one learned man, as one physician, will help a great number: but it is necessary for all men to be ashamed to do ill, and to be ready to do good. And withal, there saith Jupiter to Mercury, make this proclamation throughout the whole world, that they forthwith kill him as a disease in a state whosoever is not capable of shame to do wrong and will to do right. Whereby they do mean, that there would not be too many brought up unto learning, where both nature restrains being not fit in most, and our use doth not need them, where some few will serve all. Which two considerations nature in most, and need in all, be the chief grounds of this choice for learning. But virtue and goodness be required in all, as necessary for all in this our general need and corruption of nature, whereby most be evil, whereas all should be good. But I have said much already concerning this choice in diverse places of my former book, which I call Positions, and especially in that title, which handleth the stripping off of too many bookmen. In the qualities that declare a wit very likely to perform well afterward, when learning is obtained, they commonly consider the honest disposition, and the party's zeal towards moral virtue, and civil society even for honesty's sake, without hope of any profit. Then they mark next the foresight of conceit, which must be neither easy to be deceived, nor soon to be removed from a right opinion, by either passion in themselves, or persuasion of others. And generally whatsoever virtue is like to betray both a good man and a good subject, that they call to council in making of their choice, to have their learner make show both of capability and keeping, in matters of learning, and of towardness and constancy, in matters of living. In all these wits they still respect liberty and not bondage, ability and not poverty, to have learning liberal, where learners be no slaves, and the execution uncorrupt, where need is not to fester. Yet they do not exclude need in excellent natural wits, but they provide for their ability that they be not subject to need. And though slaves be sometimes learned, yet learning is not slavish: neither when the party's demeanor doth procure his freedom is learning manumised, which was never bond. Which two reasons, for liberty and need, the old wisdom, whereof I entreat now, must needs confess, if ye look but to Æsop among slaves and Plato among writers: whereof Æsop sought still for freedom against servility, and Plato for nature against mutable fortune, measuring not even princes by their place but by their property, by natural power and not by casual event.

That this Elementary and the profitableness thereof is confirmed by six reasonable and most evident proofs.

As for the reasons which confirm the choice of the Elementary principles, I find them to be both many and well appointed, and such as move me to think both that these five, and that not fewer than these five, neither any other than these five, do make a perfect Elementary, and that a perfect Elementary is a most excellent thing, and so most excellent as without the which, if it be not either any at all or not such as this is, there will great defects ensue in years which might be prevented in youth. For as the wise Cato being demanded what was the chief point that did belong to husbandry, answered to feed well, and doubled the point. And the eloquent Demosthenes being demanded, what was the chief point that did belong to an orator, answered to gesture well, and doubled the point: so myself, though neither a Cato for wisdom nor a Demosthenes for eloquence, yet am so resolved in this matter, as if I were demanded what I thought to be of chief force in the whole course and matter of learning, I durst boldly answer a good Elementary, and double the point. Cato answered in that argument wherewith he was acquainted, being a great husband, Demosthenes in that wherefore he was esteemed, being a great orator. And why not I in that which methink I know being a long teacher? That Cato answered wisely, what better reason can you require, than the effect thereof in the cattle themselves, and the cattlelike creatures which, being the husbandman's charge and starving without stover, defeat the ill feeder of his conceived stock. That Demosthenes' action was the soul of his orations, and assured the truth of his judicial answer, who is better witness than even Æschines his enemy? Who being banished his country by the only mean of Demosthenes' tongue, did confess in his exile that he was sorer wounded with the force of his action, which gave life to his words, than with the strength of his words, that found work for his action. That this my opinion concerning the infinite commodity of a good and perfect Elementary is as true in the train to learning as either Cato's was in husbandry, or Demosthenes' in oratory, there be six special and principal causes, which by the greatness of their own good effects, do infallibly conclude the excellent benefit thereof, even because each of the principles is so excellent good. All which concurring, and meeting in the general end of the whole Elementary, must needs import a marvelous treasure to be in the whole, where every particular, which maketh up that whole, doth prove to be so profitable. The six reasons which by their own private goodness confirm a general profit in the main Elementary be these. If the Elementary do season the green vessel with the sweetest liquor, and the untrained mind with the wholsommest humor, is the goodness thereof doubtful where the substance is so precious? If it make the child most capable of most commendable qualities, which without it he could not aspire unto, deserveth it not embracing which makes so plain a way to so excellent a thing? If it resemble nature in the multitude of her abilities, and proceed so in teaching as she doth in towarding, can the current be but good which followeth such a guide? If in place of hardness it plant facility, doth it not help students to sail with a forewind without fear of shipwreck, where all rocks be removed, that they need not to be feared, or so laid in sight, as they may easily be avoided? If where there is now very great misliking of many good things by mean of ignorance, which cannot conceive them, it do cause allowance by the mean of knowledge, which of judgment will allow them, is not learning much bound to it for clearing her from blemish? Nay, if within the Elementary compass it comprehend also the entry to language and the grammar travail, which is the key to all cunning, may it not then well be said to be perfect in all points which belong to any Elementary? seeing in course of study, where language doth end there learning doth begin? and all that goeth before that, as in order it is a principal, so in nature it is Elementary? Now that it is of such efficacy, for seasoning with the best, for conceiving of the most, for resemblance of nature, for exile to hardness, for maim to misliking, for entry to speech, it shall be proved very plainly, and withal so, as no other Elementary can possibly compare with it. For as I am thoroughly persuaded that the first Elementary, being well perfected, is the only furtherer to all kinds of learning: so am I likewise resolved, that this Elementary, not devised by me, though revived by me, is the perfection of the Elementary, and so consequently the chief promoter of the after learning, which the effect will show in proof, as the reasons will in proving. Which I therefore set down, as diligently as I can, that my good readers perceiving thereby the profit of the thing, may the sooner procure the effecting thereof, by subscribing to that which they see so well warranted.

Of those six reasons whereby I take the great use of this Elementary to be unfallibly confirmed, the first is, because it doth season the tender and untrained mind with the best and sweetest liquor. Which that it doth, who will deny, when he shall evidently see nothing to be propounded therein but that which is most pure and picked? Plato, Aristotle and Quintilian, though not they alone, in those places of their fortrain, where they wish a child that is to be brought up well neither to hear, nor to read, nor to see anything at all in his teaching, kind and of set purpose, but only that which is most agreeable in opinion with truth, in behaviour with virtue: by that their so saying declare unto us the quality of those things which are best for children to deal withal at first. And our own religion, which best knoweth of what importance it is to have youth imbrued with the best at the first, is marvelous careful, both to win them to it by precept and to work it in them by practice. When the child shall have the matter of his reading, which is his first principle, so well pruned and so picked, as it shall catechize him in religion truly, frame him in opinion rightly, fashion him in behaviour civilly, and withal contain in some few leaves the greatest varieties of most syllables, the chief difference of most words, the sundry pronouncing of all parts and branches of every period, doth not reading then, which is the first principle, seem to season very sure? enriching the mind with so precious matter, and furnishing the tongue with so perfect and utterance? When the argument of the child's copy, and the direction of his hand, whereby he learns to write, shall be answerable to his reading for choice of good matter, and reverence to young years, neither shall offer anything to the eye, but that may beautify the mind and will deserve memory, will not writing season well, which so useth the hand as it helpeth to all good? When the pen and pencil shall be restrained to those draughts which serve for present seemliness and more cunning to come on, for the very necessary uses of all our whole life, doth not that same liquor wherewith they draw so deserve very good liking, which will not draw at all but where virtue bids draw? When music shall teach nothing but honest for delight and pleasant for note, comely for the place and seemly for the person, suitable to the thing and serviceable to circumstance, can that humor corrupt, which breedeth such delight, being so everywhere armed against just challenge of either blame or misliking? For the principle of grammar, I will not touch it here, because I intend not to deal with it here, but wheresoever I shall touch it, I will touch it so as it shall answer to the rest in all kinds of good. In the mean time till the grammar principle do come to light, that reading shall be so religious, writing so wary, drawing so dangerless, singing so seemly, playing so praiseworthy, the event shall give evidence, and the relish itself shall set forth the seasoning. But by the way, as the Elementary professeth itself in the course of learning, and in trade of school to be the first and best seasoner of the untrained mind, so ought parents also for their own part both before and during all the Elementary time, to provide so at home as there be no ill liquor inconsiderately poured into the green cask which may so corrupt it, as it will either quite refuse the good Elementary humor or unwillingly receive it, and not to such a good as it for to work, where the cask is not corrupt. For if the young eyes be acquainted at home with unseemly sights, if the tender ears be more than half trained to uncomely hearings, if the pliable mind be unwisely writhen to a disfigured shape, if the whole conceit be unadvisedly stained with a contrary dye, how can that countenance be liked on in school, whose contrary favor is most honored at home? Those parents therefore which will look for the best liquor in schools must not in any case use corrupt humor at home. For that is most true, which is uttered by many, but most oracle like by Plato, concerning the strength of that juice which the young wits are first seasoned withal, that the beginning of every thing is of most moment, chiefly to him, that is young and tender, because the stamp is then best fashioned and entereth deepest wherewith ye mean to mark him, and the sequel will be such as the foretrain shall lead, whethersoever you march, because naturally the like still draweth on the like.

The Second is that this Elementary maketh the child most capable of most commendable qualities.

Those means make one capable of some further quality, by whose help that party which is to come by such a quality both conceiveth it quicker, retaineth it faster, and executeth it better. Now those means be in us either naturally ingenerate, or artificially implanted, and that so, as they show themselves both in our bodies and minds. I say therefore that these five principles, reading, writing, drawing, singing, and playing, which make this whole Elementary, besides exercise, which is Elementary too, though handled elsewhere, be the only artificial means to make a mind capable of all the best qualities which are to be engrafted in the mind, though to be executed by the body, which best qualities be two, virtue for behaviour and knowledge for cunning. Under the name of behaviour I comprise all those qualities whose honor is in action, as under the name of knowledge I imply all those whose sovereignty is in skill, though either of them both know ere they do, and do as they know. For virtue and the planting thereof, it hath no cause to complain of this Elementary, which giveth precepts unto children how to learn to do well, and so preserveth virtue as much as direction can. What furtherance else is to be had thereunto by practising that in deed which is commanded in word, that is reserved also, and most earnestly recommended even by this Elementary to all parents and teachers, according unto the distinction of that authority which they have over children. Doth not this Elementary then make children most capable of virtue in elder years, for whose growing it is so careful in their tender age, both by precept and performance? As for knowledge which tendeth directly unto cunning, these five principles serve directly thereunto. For by them the mind is prepared and made fit to receive and understand all things, which either nature doth bequeath us, or labor provides for us: By reading we receive what antiquity hath left us, by writing we deliver what posterity causes of us: By resembling with pencil what aspectable thing is there, and subject to the eye, either brought forth by nature or set forth by art, whose knowledge and use we attain not unto? By the principle of music, besides the purchase of a noble science, so certainly platted by arithmetical precept, as no one better, so necessary a step to further knowledge, as no one more, such a glass wherein to behold both the beauty of concord, and the blots of dissension even in a politic body, as no one surer: how many helps and how great ease receiveth our natural infirmity either in care for comfort, or in hope for courage. Not here to touch the skilful handling of the rude voice, nor the fine nimbling of the raw finger, things not to be refused where they may be well had, and naturally required where imperfection is to be perfected by them. Again doth not all our learning conceived by the eye and uttered by the tongue confess the great benefit which it receiveth by reading? Doth not all our delivery brought forth by the mind and set forth by the pen acknowledge a duty to the principle of writing? Doth not all our descriptions which figure in the thought, and picture to the sense both preach and praise the pencil, which causeth them to be seen? Doth not all our delight in times not busied (as all our labour is for rest, all our travail for ease, all our care to avoid care) protest in plain terms that it is wonderfully indebted to either part of music, both by instrument and voice? the natural sweetener of our sour life in any man's judgement that is not too sour? Now what learned quality is there of any commendation, but it falleth within this number, and is furthered by these principles, whether it be chief profession of greater note or meaner faculty of less account, or necessary trade of unforbearable use? And not to leave exercise quite untouched, seeing it is mere Elementary, and always to join with each ascent in learning, as the body growing in strength or in years requireth more or less stirring: by the artificial benefit thereof the feet excel in swiftness if nature be according, the arms in strength, the whole body in each part, for all gifts in each part which either concern health or cause activity. And as so many principles appointed for the mind being cunningly applied thereunto do make it most able both to conceive with the soonest, and to deliver with the fairest: even so the one principle of exercise being skillfully applied according to right circumstance maketh the body most active in all parts, to execute all functions both of necessity and praise with a marvelous nimbleness. All qualities therefore whether belonging to the body, because their execution is by it, or pertaining to the mind, because their seat is in it, must needs confess themselves to be so balanced by this Elementary, as indeed they were nothing if it were not. Take exercise away, what then is the body, but an unwieldy lump? what use of it hath either country in defence or itself in delight? Remove precept and practice and where then is virtue, which neither knoweth what to do if it be not directed, neither doth when it knoweth if it fail of practice? Set these five principles apart, what can the unlearned eye judge of? the untrained hand deal with? the unframed voice please with? If all the principles want, then all the qualities fail; if some certain want, then so many fail as proceed from them that want. If all the principles be had, then all the qualities will follow. Wherefore I conclude that if all commendable qualities do fall within this compass, if these principles advance them all, if want in the one cause defect in the other, that then this Elementary must needs cause the child being so well trained, to be most capable of most commendable qualities, and that the defect in these must of mere necessity cause defect in those. Whereof they can best judge which when they grow in years, than perceive their own lack which commeth for want of such a foretrain. At which time one of these things straight way enseueth. Either they condemn that which they know not through ignorance: or they contemn that which they despair of through insolence: or they moan that which they miss of through negligence, most commonly of friends, which regarding little else but the wait to wealth, desire rather a compendious path to compass that than a longer circuit to come by a better, though in the end they perceive that at the first they might well have obtained both, with very small ado. Wherefore the Elementary being so absolute, and yielding so great a capableness to further qualities, it were too great an oversight in those parents which have opportunity at will, to neglect it in their children, and instead of knowledge in all to leave them ignorant in some, and cause them in years to mislike where they cannot judge, contemn where they cannot compass, bewail where they feel want, chiefly considering that as it will make children capable of the most, so itself is compassable well nigh by the meanest.

The third proof of a good Elementary was to resemble nature in multitude of abilities, and to proceed so in teaching as she doth in towarding. For as she is unfriendly wheresoever she is forced, so is she the best guide that any man can follow wheresoever she favoreth. Wherefore if nature make a child most fit to excel in many singularities, so they be furthered and advanced by Elementary train in the younger years, is not that education much to be blamed, by whom the salt comes, and the infant is defeated of that same excellency, which nature voweth, and negligence avoideth?

If nature do offer a towardness to write, and no impediment let, but it may be well applied, is not consideration untoward, if that ability want forwarding? If with some small help a childes voice may be made sweet, tunable and cunning, is not education lame, if it continue harsh, unpleasant, and rude? If by benefit of nature, we be made fit for more qualities, than ordinary education doth help us unto, do we not blame them, who having government over us, leave us ignorant in that, which in ripeness of years we want in our selves, and wonder at in others?

But for the better understanding of my conclusion, and this great concordance, which I note to be between nature in framing, and art in training, both for number of abilities, and for manner of proceeding, I will first examine the natural abilities, which are to be perfected, and how nature herself doth forward the perfection: then I will show, how those principles, which art hath devised for the furtherance of nature, do answer unto those abilities of nature, both for sufficiency in number, and fitness to perfection.

I call those natural abilities, which nature planteth in our minds and bodies, prepared by her self for us to use, but to be perfected by our selves, to our own best use, whereunto that power of our mind, or that part of our body doth especially serve, in which that ability is naturally placed: As for example, nature planteth in the hand an ability to catch and hold, which that it may do to the best effect, and to that use for the which we have our hand, our own policy and practice must be our best mean. Nature planteth in our mind an ability to foresee such things, as be to come, which that it may do to our greatest profit, our own wisdom, and our own consideration, must be our best mean. Whereby it will fall out, that we our own selves do cause our own want, if we do not our endeavor, to further those helps, which the goodness of nature, nay, which the goodness of God, the Lord and prince of nature, of his own mere gift doth so bestow upon us, as we may freely have them, if we list to apply them.

I call those Artificial principles, which mans wisdom having considered the intendment of nature doth devise for himself, so many in number, and so fit in quality, as they may take sure hold of all natural inclinations and abilities, and bring them to perfection by the like mean, and the like ascent, in training them to that end, which policy doth shout at, as nature sheweth herself to be very well willing to follow the hand of any such a trainer, by such a mean as is devised, to such an end, as she desireth: As in the former examples of the hand to hold sure, and the mind to foresee, which be natural abilities, artificial principle is to use such exercises, and so considerate experiments, and with such preciseness in the use of them both, as the hand may hold best, and surest with all, the mind foresee most, and furthest withal.

But who shall judge of this, that this Elementary layeth hold upon all those natural abilities? he shall be able to say exceeding much to it, which being but brought up well in the ordinary train shall but consider this book advisedly in every branch thereof. But he shall judge best of it, who hath been brought up by it, and by his own sufficiency shall both be able to pronounce himself, and to cause others pronounce, by seeing him so sufficient, that there is no point for either activity in body, or capacity in mind, whereto nature makes him toward, but that nurture sets him forward.

Is the body made by nature nimble to run, to ride, to swim, to sense, to do anything else, which beareth praise in that kind for either profit or pleasure? And doth not the Elementary help them all forward by precept and train? The hand, the ear, the eye be the greatest instruments, whereby the receiving and delivery of our learning, is chiefly executed. And doth not this Elementary instruct the hand, to write, to draw, to play? The eye to read by letters, to discern by line, to judge by both. The ear to call for voice, and sound with proportion for pleasure, with reason for wit? and generally whatsoever gift nature hath bestowed upon the body, to be brought forth or bettered by the mean of train, for any profitable use in our whole life, doth not this Elementary both find it, and foresee it? As for the qualities of the mind, whether they touch virtuousness in living, or skillfulness in learning, as arts, sciences, professions, or whatsoever else, by whatsoever term or title else, do they not every one most apparently proceed from reading and writing, as from their natural principles, the one for delivery, the other for receipt? whether they travail in language for itself, wherein grammar, rhetoric, logic, and their derivatives claim interest, or show knowledge by language in any other faculty. Where under be contained in general terms, all the parts of philosophy both moral and natural, the three professions divinity, law, physic, all the branches of them all, all the offsprings of each, whose instruments speech is. If the mathematics be the end, or any particular else, which clameth kindred of them, whose natural end is to direct manuary science, though their translate use be to whet a learned mind, can they lack any footing, where number, figure, motion and sound be practised in principle? where the mathematics and their friends be thus induced, whose necessary reason doth force their own place, can any other faculty, whose but probable appearance doth entreat for a room, but find how to enter? Whatsoever else concerneth either delight to comfort our weakness, or delightful use to serve our necessary, with cunning of praise, or handling of art, all that is foreseen either by drawing of the eye, or by music for the ear. So that in my opinion, the fathers and founders of this Elementary, whereof I am but collector, though as favorable a collector, as so good a thing deserveth, have used great foresight to lay such foundations therein, as may both nuzzle up all natural abilities, while they are sprouting in train, and perfect them at full, when they are ripe for the reaping.

For the multitude and variety of those principles, which I appoint the young scholars to deal with, that is confirmed even by nature herself, which making her own abilities to be so many, requireth as many principles to bring them to perfection, every one helping forward his cousin and friend. And those wise men also, which did both devise them, and execute them in such a number, and of such variety, because they would not have young wits to be overburdened with multitude unwisely applied, did help them in train through distinction in time: as the learned Quintilian doth show in a particular discourse, where he examineth this question, whether young children be to learn diverse things at one time or no. Where he concludeth that they may, as a thing of no trouble, if it be well divided, because the younger the wits be, the better they be fed with variety: and if they be troubled sometimes, or fail in something, yet it is with their minds, as it is with their bodies, soon down and soon up again, and lightly without harm, if their nurses and trainers be ready at their hand. For the children, which when they be from their overseers must deal of themselves, are by little and little to be committed to themselves to learn to do that betimes, which they must deal with ever after, yet while they are young, and wholly under charge, their faults come rather by negligence of such, as have charge over them, than of their own selves, which cannot rule themselves.

If nature in some children be not so pregnant, as they may take the full benefit of this whole train, yet by applying it wisely, there may be some good don, even in the heaviest wits, and most unapt bodies, though nothing so much as in the very quickest. If any parent again finding the natural defect in his child do forbear his pains, and spare his purse, where he hopes for small profit, he hath nature to warrant him, which seemeth even as it were directly to warn him, not to lose his labor, where she lift not to favor.

Again if any one wanting opportunity cannot compass all, or having opportunity will not meddle withal, which education and nature seem jointly to promise, he hath no cause to blame either of them, whereof the one offered that, which he would not use, the other that, which he would not take. But to knit up this argument, methink it is plain, that seeing nature offereth variety of gifts, industry ought to use both her hands to take that, which is offered. Which diligence in taking seeing this Elementary professeth, as it letteth nothing fall, which nature holdeth up: so I take it therefore to be most absolute, in that it doth answer so friendly a mother as nature is, and joins with her in working.

The fourth proof of a good Elementary was, in place of hardness to plant facility, and to lighten the course of study by making of it plain. For what thing is it but hardness alone which most appalleth young men's courages, and abateth their diligence, in a manner fraying them to go any further, when they are very well minded, towards the obtaining of sound, and substantial knowledge? And what but hardness is the chief and original cause, why so many rest content with simple and superficial skill, being unwilling to toil themselves with the difficulties of study, and that ere they come to feel, that small learning will serve well enough to come by a great living? which might have been alleged for a very great impediment to greater learning, if it had gone before the feeling of hardness: but the course is this. Young men desire to get learning to live by, and while they are in place of learning, as in universities, because there they see learning in best credit, they are indeed desirous to be noted for learning, which when they cannot come by, being checked through hardness, in the matter of study, as they think, but indeed through weakness in their first train, as I know, then they devise, how to turn that little, which they have, to the best commodity that they can, and so in seeking of preferment, they join great practices with some simple learning, as their best mean to obtain greater living. Whereas in very deed if difficulty had not crossed them, they would have joined worthiness in themselves, with admiration in others, and so have been called by others, and not have craved themselves. This hardness certainly commeth because such students have not been brought up in the knowledge of these Elements, which being well laid while children are yet under the rod, and learn as it were more by rote than by reason, without feeling themselves, either much pains or any profit, will cause an easy and a pleasant course in the further learning, when they can judge what they do, though they did it not in doing.

For children as they be still in doing, so they know not what they do, much less wherefore they do, till reason do grow unto some ripeness in them. And therefore the matter of their train is such, as they profit more by practice, than by knowing why, till they feel the use of reason, which teacheth them to know considerations and causes. The foresight for their well doing in the mean time remains in their parents, teachers, and friends, who provide so for them in youth, as they may praise them again, and pray for them in age. But when they themselves do grow to judgement, having been so brought up, then they do find what a great deal of good they have already don, and how beneficial their friends have been unto them, for helping them so much. Then they see, where other not so trained do prove stark blind. Then make they no bones, where every little let, is a very great log to any of the others: then march they one at pleasure, like soldiers of courage, whose way is made plain by pioneers sent before, where the others, which are not so well provided for, will rather cast away their armor, than wrestle with the difficulties of unknown and uneasy passages.

But to go more particularly, is the compassing of tongues hard? sure so it is, to one of no foretrain, that never learned grammar, that never read writer, that never proved his stile, that never used the tongue. Be the mathematics hard? sure so they be to one not prepared, that never did number, that never drew line, that never knew note, that never marked motion. Be the abilities of the body laborious and hard? sure that they be, where it is painful to prove, what the body can do, being never put to it. But where foretrain is, there ease will follow, where the body is prepared, the purgation worketh: where exercise leadeth, activity will follow, both in those and the rest. They that have these helps well grounded in their youth, as I said before, may go forward with ease, and stand very fast, where others must needs stumble, which have no such help. Which stumblers, though by their own exceeding great, and therefore exceeding commendable travail, they oft times in the end excel those, which were better brought up than they were, yet the train was well appointed, whatsoever negligence disappointed the effect in those, which having wings to fly vouchsafed scant to flutter: and the blame resteth in them, which might have don well and would not, the praise in them, which did so well, though they wrestled sore for it.

Therefore the tender mind of the young infant being first imbrued with these principles as the best, for the first liquor: and then furnished with their store, as the most, for all help, facility must needs follow in all that doth succeed.

The opinion mentioned in Plato's Phædon, that all our learning is but a calling to remembrance of foreacquainted skill, the soul having in it naturally, and from her first being all manner of learning, though never uttering it, but when it is moved by foreign occasion, confirmeth this opinion of facility in learning, after these principles be once laid. For if the general conceit in nature by way of principle do make all knowledge to seem of old acquaintance, and the things themselves to be no sooner named, than straight way perceived, as of no new familiarity, no sooner hard but straight called to remembrance, as the known inhabitants of natural memory (which kind of perceiving Aristotle calleth a knowledge within us a forehand, which knowledge, leadeth the strongest and the best demonstration) sure when difficulty is past in the first planting, which is rightly termed the better half of the whole, facility must needs follow in all the reside, which seem to the principles, as of their acquaintance, they follow so friendly. So sharp an eye hath he to see further, whose sight is made steady by such a preparative. He that in his Elementary train can read and write well, he that handling the pen or pencil can use them both well by number, and with line: and dealing with music can judge well of sounds, and handle instruments right, what can he think hard in his after study, if study be his choice? Nay what shall he find hard, though handicraft be his end? for he may well have all these principles, yea and the mathematics too, and yet aspire no higher, than the plain workman: because those helps be peculiar to such people, though for some quickness to will, and constantness in proof, they be vsed for book learning. Now if he be entered into language, so far as grammar goeth, which is the tip of the Elementary, will there be question of difficulty? Then all hardness being removed in the Elementary, before the learner can discern, what a foredeal he is at, and facility being won, where the student might have stumbled, if his way had not been planed, what a pleasant field hath study to range in, where nothing can hinder, if loitering do no harm? Which loitering and negligence is always excepted, as a thing that thwarteth even the best devices, and commonly cuts off all good success, in even the fairest attempts, though it free the thing from blame, whose furtherance it stoppeth, and cast the fault on him, whose hindrance it helpeth. For the thing remaineth one, though the party have it not, the party is the worse, because he hath not the thing, and so much the worse, because he is worse than him self, through his own negligence, which might have passed himself, through his own diligence.

The fifth praise of this Elementary was, because it is the best mean to avoid general ignorance, the mother to misliking, and to come by general knowledge, which is the cause of knowledge, which is the cause of allowance. A circumstance of great moment in the province of learning, as it is generally also in all other dealings. For that which is misliked, is still under foot, and that which is allowed is always aloft. Now all misliking commeth either upon desert, when the thing is such, as for very naughtiness it is to be misliked, or upon opinion, when error in the party misliketh that thing, which is of itself well worthy the liking.

Opinion falls in error either through mere ignorance, when he that misliketh, knoweth not what the thing is, which he doth mislike, or else through prejudice, when he that misliketh doth know the thing well, but is so wedded unto, nay rather so bewitched with his own fancy, which itself is seduced by some foreign allurement, as he will rather mislike against knowledge, than withstand against fancy.

As for the matter of learning, wherein our study consisteth, and whereunto these principles make a ready entrance, our necessary use both bred it at the first, and continueth it still, in very good credit. And what man is so simple, but he knoweth it to be such, as deserveth good liking: both for the service that it doth us, which is the natural end of it, and for the propriety in handling, which is an artificial mean to it? Wherefore if with out cause it be otherwise charged by any color of blame either in all or in part, opinion is the charger, which opinion in so doing is either blinded by ignorance, or corrupted by fancy, the very worst branch of any kind of error, not minding to amend and still waxing worse, as both the two be very great enemies to all right judgement. Ignorance knoweth nothing, and therefore is no friend to any unknown good: prejudice knoweth and will not, and therefore is a great foe to a not favored good. Ignorance yet in part deserveth some excuse for all her disfriendship, because infirmity is her fault, not bolstered with ill will, and the worst is her own, any ordinary case, where even enmity pityeth. But prejudice is a poison to any commonweal, so far as it stretcheth, which being at the first infected with the incurable disease of a cankered and a corrupt opinion gathered by confluence of sundry ill humors will neither itself yield to a right judgement, nor will suffer any other, where her persuasion can take place. For by yielding her self she feareth the impairing of her misconceived estimation, and by suffering others to yield, she feareth the increase of knowledge's friends, whereby her self shall come in danger to be oppressed, both with truth of matter, and number of patrons. Wherefore she opposeth her self, she bendeth all her eloquence, she mureth up all passages, so much as she may, both by persuasion and entreaty, that none shall judge right, which will hear her speak, and regard her authority, but shall take that music to sound the sweetest, which commeth from her, though she be but a mear-maid, which by offering of delight endeavoreth to destroy. Ignorance is violent and like unto a lion, when it encountereth with knowledge, still in fury without feeling, in rage without reason, and riseth of two causes, either infirmity in nature, or negligence in labor. Whereof the one could not, the other would not conceive at the first, when knowledge was in dealing. Both enemies to knowledge, but negligence the greater, which either fearing disdain for her first refusal, or envying him which loveth where she left, will not seem to favor, where she once forsook, and stomacheth him, which embraceth her leavings, awaking her malice in show upon knowledge, indeed upon folly. Which folly being lodged within her own breast, beside that negligent ignorance, useth to call in a dangerous opinion, the contempt of that good, which she ought to commend, rather then she will by change of opinion and altering her hew, betray her own error, which all men see saving she that should: being at defiance with knowledge, not by simplicity of nature, which offered, but by naughtiness of choice, which refused the attaining thereof.

Now natural infirmity the other and more gentle mean of ignorance would perhaps, nay would indeed change her blind opinion, if she could once change her ingenerate heaviness: she would reverence learning, if she might see her beauty, where with to be ravished, being enemy unto her, not of malice but of weakness.

That which I speak of infirmity in nature, and negligence in choice is to be intended by such of both sorts, as continue in their worst without remorse of evil, or recourse to good. For if any man whether naturally dull or negligently rude in riper years upon better advise do change his current: the natural weak to love that in others, which he hath not himself: the negligently rude to wish that in himself, which he seeth to be in others, he then becomes friend to judgement, and will rather continue in suspense, than pronounce rashly, till he be thoroughly enforced.

But that same perverse prejudice is a subtle foe to knowledge like a manyheaded hydra, and as the venom of his authority is gathered of diverse grounds, so the sting of his poison infecteth diverse ways. The person himself which is thus carried away by a peevish opinion is commonly no heavy head, but either superficially learned, and yet loath to seem so: or enviously affected and still carping at his better: or ambitiously given and presumeth upon countenance: or he measureth knowledge by gain, and setteth naught by any more, that himself shall need, to compass that he coveteth, where a little cunning will compass much more than reason thinks enough in corruption of minds. All which four causes mean learning glad to make great show, envious affection glancing at good things: vane presumption playing the peacock: covetous desire careless of great cunning, as they corrupt the judgement, so they maintain prejudice, while the party so corrupted will seek by all means to continue his credit: so much the more a deadly enemy to knowledge, because prejudice must give place, if knowledge come in place, and therefore that it may not come, he employeth all his forces, by all cunning, and all well colored shifts to shoulder it out: a professed foe, and so much the shrewder, because he supplanteth knowledge under the opinion of knowledge.

Now considering these so fiery and so furious enemies to knowledge, ignorance and prejudice with their whole families be the causes why, that the best things and matters of most cunning be oft times misliked, where they be unknown, either simply or shrewdly, doth not this Elementary a great pleasure to knowledge, by planting skill in all, to avoid misliking in any? that every part of knowledge may be so esteemed of, as it justly deserves? and each of these mislikers may be so entreated, as to become friends of foes?

The sixth and last proof of perfectness in this elementary was, because the entrance of language, and the judgement thereof, which is wrought by grammar, is the conclusion and height thereof. Which how profitable a thing it is, the effects themselves will evidently declare. For by course of nature and use of antiquity, grammar travaileth first to have the natural tongue of each country fined to that best, and most certain direction, which the ordinary custom of that country which useth the tongue, can lead her unto: As how to reduce our English tongue to some certain rule, for writing and reading, for words and speaking, for sentence and ornament, that men may know, when they write or speak right. Which direction was both the first, and the most ancient use of the original grammar. Whose professors because of their judgement were called Critici, as Aristarchus among the Greeks, Palamon among the Romans. Secondly grammar, as it hath been used since, seeketh to help us to the knowledge of foreign language, as the Latin, the Italian, and such other tongues, which at this day is the principal use thereof. Where it serveth in the nature of an anatomy, for the resolving of the written speech: in the nature of an artificer, for making up the habit of a foreign tongue in the studious learner, by writing and speaking. Now in either of these kinds, whether to fine our own tongue, or to learn a foreign, we are much bound to grammar, even for itself alone, but a great deal more in respect of her professor, which must perform the three things, that I named before of his own ability. For grammar of itself is but the bare rule, and a very naked thing, but the professor must have somewhat more than his rule.

And (not to meddle here at this time with any foreign tongue, for either the one or the other part of grammar) doth it not I pray you, show us Englishmen a very great pleasure, if it help to the refining of our own English tongue, and thereby to make it to be of such account, as other tongues be, which be therefore of best account, because they be so fined? whereby we our selves also shall seem not to be barbarous, even by mean of our tongue, seeing fair speech is some parcel of praise, and a great argument of a well civilized people.

In the primitive grammar children being framed so, as I require now, went straight way from the Elementary to matter of learning, and the mathematical sciences, which are so termed, because indeed the whole scholars learning (which scholars in Greek are called mahytai) consisted in them, as in the first degree of right study. For whatsoever goeth before them in right study, is nothing else at all, but mere Elementary: and whatsoever goeth before them in wrong study, as it is wrested in nature, so it worketh no great wonder. But in the second use of grammar, we are enforced of necessity, after the Elementary howsoever huddled up, and how simple soever, to deal with the tongues, ere we pass to any matter, which help of tongues, though it be most necessary for the thing, as our study is now platted, yet it hindereth us in a time a thing of great price, nay it hindereth us in knowledge a thing of more price. For by the lingering about language, we are removed and kept back one degree further from sound knowledge, which is so great a degree, being in our best learning time, while we be under masters and readers, of whom we may learn far better, than of our selves, if that regard be had to them in choice, which elsewhere I have wished were carefully had. For this time this may suffice, that this our Elementary is very beneficial unto us, by the mean of grammar also, which is the honor and perfection of the Elementary in both her natures, but chiefly in the course of our learning now, whereby we are entered into language, and withal into knowledge, while our own tongue remaineth but poor, and is kept very low through some reasonable superstition, not to have learning in it.

But here to conclude the general use of this present Elementary, which hath been thus far my particular argument, I must needs continue my first opinion, which was and is this, that in the matter of learning, a good Elementary is more than the half, because it is the first: and that in the first it is mere the best, because the wisest men, the greatest reasons, the best governed commonweals did so pronounce of it, the one by their pen, the other by their practice.

I will set all the variety of our now writing, and the uncertain force of all our letters in as much certainty, as any writing can be, by these seven precepts, General rule, which concerneth the property and use of each letter: Proportion, which reduceth all words of one sound to the same writing. Composition, which teacheth how to write one word made of more: Derivation, which examineth the offspring of every original: Distinction which betrayeth the difference of sound, and force in letters by some written figure or accent: Enfranchisement, which directeth the right writing of all incorporate form foreign words: Prerogative, which declareth a reservation, wherein common use will continue her precedence in our English writing, as she hath don every where else, both for the form of the letter, in some places, which likes the pen better: and for the difference in writing, where some particular caveat will check a common rule. In all these seven I will so examine the particularities of our tongue, as either nothing shall seem strange at all,

The method which the learned tongues vsed in the finding out of their own right spelling.

I begin the Elementary at the argument of right writing, because reading, which is the first Elementary principle, must be directed both in precept and practice, thereafter as the thing, which is to be read, is written or printed. And considering the right writing of our tongue is yet in question: some, but those too forward, esteeming it quite improper: some, but those too backward, thinking it perfect enough: some, and those the soundest judging it to be in most well appointed, though in particulars to be helped: is it not a very necessary labor to set the writing certain, that the reading may be sure? Now in examining the right of our writing, I begin at that method, which the learned tongues vsed, to find out the like right in their own writing, when it was in like question, that ours now is, for these two reasons. First by following their president, and marking that course, which was vsed in them, I shall both have good warrant against any such, as shall mislike of my current, and dream of new devises: and withal, I shall be abler to work the like in English, by using the like precept, in the like observation. For all tongues keep one, and the same rule for their man, though every one have his property in part, which particular property, as it is noted in the best tongues, (which are so termed, because they are so esteemed, for the prerogative of that use, which we find to be in them) so it is warranted in ours, even by president from them. The second cause, that moved me to begin at this method, is thereby to answer all those objections, which charge our writing with either insufficiency, or confusion: and also to examine by it, as by a sure touchstone, all the other supplements, which have been devised heretofore, to help our writing, by either altering of the old characters, or devising of some new, or increasing of their number. For if the other so esteemed tongues, when they were subject to, and charged with these same supposed wants, wherewith our writing is now burdened, did deliver them selves by other means, than either by altering, or by innovating, or by increasing their characters, and made the stuff of their own custom, to be stear of their direction, as this method will show, why should we desire to seek foreign means, and impertinent to our tongue, by device of new forge, having such a pattern to perfect our writing, by a so well warranted president?

Well then, what means did those languages use, which have won the opinion, that they be right write, to come by that right, which wrought that opinion? There be two considerations in speech, concerning the way, which hath been vsed in the fining thereof. For if we look into the first degree of fining, before which, no tongue at all had any beauty in the pen, we are to consider, how the very first tongue did proceed from her first rudeness, to her best perfection: Again if we look into the next degree, wherein the like fineness ensued in other tongues, by following the like course to that which the first refiners took, then we are to consider, how other secondary languages have pruned and picked themselves, by following that method, which the primitive did use.

But because I desire to be warranted by them both, that is, both following the first finers, and the second presidentiaries, in this my course, (which no man hath yet kept in this argument, as I can perceive, though diverse write orthographies,) and my opinion is, that it best beseems a scholar, to proceed by Art in any recovery, from the claws if ignorance: Therefore I will rip up, even from the very root, how and by what degrees, the very first tongue, doth seem to come by that her perfection in writing, and what order was taken to continue that perfection, ever since the time that any tongue is perfected. Always reserving so much to his consideration, which intendeth the fining of any speech, as concerneth the property of any particular tongue, which particularity will not be comprised under general precept with any other tongue, but must be directed by private observation, and particular exception against the common rule. And yet even this so particular a circumstance is not omitted in the general method of the first fining, and thereby it is commended unto us by way of translation, which come in the third degree, and fine after the first, by following of the middle. Now in this long way from the first soil of extreme rudeness, to the last neatness of most cunning, I will appoint three rests, every one naturally succeeding the other, where the readers conceit may light and go on foot, if it be wearied with riding, I do not say with reading. The first is, while the sound alone bare the sway in writing. The second is, while consent in use did transport the authority, from sound alone, to reason, custom, and sound jointly. The third, which presently reigneth, is, while that reason and custom, do assure their own joint government with sound, by the mean of Art. For sound like a restrained not banished Tarquinius desiring to be restored to his first and sole monarchy, and finding some, but no more than sounding favorers, did seek to make a tumult in the scriveners province, ever after that, reason and custom were joined with him in commission.

I will therefore first deal with that regiment in writing, which was under sound, when every thing was written according to the sound, though that kind of government be long ago worn out.

I should begin too high in seeking out the ground of right writing, (as he that fetched the battle of Troy from Leda's two eggs, or as she that was angry with felling the first tree, because she took unkindness with him that came by ship, to that place where she did dwell), if I should make enquiry either who devised letters first, or who wrote first, a thing as uncertain to be known, as fruitless if it were known. For Herodotus in his Muses, Diodorus, in his library, Eusebius in his preparative, Pliny in his history, Flauius Josephus in his antiquities of Rome, Coelius Rhodiginus, in his antiquity of reading, Polydorus Virgilius in his inventors of things, and many several writers more, seeking to learn out either the first founder of the general character, or the first devisor of the particular, for particular nations, are as new to seek, when they have sought all, as they were at first, before they sought any. For what certainty can there be had of so old a thing? or what profit can rise by some one mans name, if one were the founder, as it cannot be. Who though he be honored for the fruit of his invention, yet doth his authority small good, where the matter in question is to be confirmed, not by the inventors credit, who dwells we known not where, but by the users profit, which every one feels. And therefore as they, whosoever devised the thing first (for it was no one mans invention, nor of any one age) did a marvelous good turn to all their posterity: so we, which be their posterity, are to think well of the inventors, and to judge thus of their inventions: that very necessity was the foundress of letters, and of all writing, as it hath been only the general breeder of all such things, as our life is better by, when need and want enforced men's wits, to seek for such helps. For the tongue conveying speech no further than to those, which were within hearing, and the necessity of conveyance oft times falling out between some persons that were further of: a device was made to serve the eye a far of, by the mean of letters, as nature did satisfy the ear at hand by benefit of speech. For the delivery of learning by the pen to posterity, was not the first cause that found out letters, but an excellent use perceived to be in them to serve for perpetuity, a great while after they had been found by necessity. The letter being thus found out, to serve a needful turn took the force of expressing every distinct sound in voice, not by them selves or any virtue in their form (for what likeness or what affinity hath the form of any letter in his own nature, to answer the force or sound in mans voice?) but only by consent of those men, which first invented them, and the pretty use thereof perceived by those, which first did receive them. Whereby the people that vsed them first, agreed with those, that found them first, such a sound in the voice should be resembled by such a sign to the eye: and that such a sign in the eye should be so returned to the ear, as the aspectable figure of such an audible sound: whereunto they subscribed their names, and set to their seals the day and year, when their consent past.

Hereupon in the first writing, the sound alone did lead the pen, and every word was written with those letters, which the sound did command, because the letters were invented, to express sounds. Then for the right in spelling, who was sovereign and judge, and but sound alone? who gave sentence of pen, ink, and paper, but sound alone? then what was found in the setting down, but that which was awarded by sound alone? Then every one of the people, then every one though most unskillful, was partaker in authority, and sound should rule alone, and all those have a stroke, in the government of sound, whosoever were able but even to make a sound. In those days, all those arguments, which cleave so sore unto the prerogative of sound, and plead so for his interest, in setting down of letters, were most esteemed of, as most agreeable to the time, and most officious to the state. That they now perceived, not any defect in him, who vsed that like a prince, which was his peculiar, by their own commission: but an oversight in them selves, who unadvisedly overcharged him, with such an estate, as he could not wield alone, without his great dishonor, whereof they were as tender, as of their own souls. That their request therefore unto him, was, to pray and beseech him, not to esteem more of his own private honor, than of the whole provinces good. That they might with his good leave, amend their own error, which though it concerned his person, yet should it not touch his credit, the fault being their in their first choice.

They paused a little while, before they uttered the very main cause of this their motion, for that they spied sound to begin to change color, and half ready to swoon. For the fellow is passionate, in authority tyrannous, in aw timorous.

Howbeit seeing the common good did urge them to speech, they went on, and told him in plain terms, that he must be content to refer himself to order, and so much the rather, because their meaning was not to seek either his deprivation, or his resignation, but that it would please him to qualify his government, and to use the assistance of a further council, which they meant to join with him, a thing of great fruit, and of good example in many such cases, where even great potentates, and considerate princes, for the general weal of their natural states, (his being but voluntary, and of their election) were very well content, upon humble suite made to them, to admit such a council, and to use them in affaires. That the reasons which moved them to make this suite, and might also move him, to admit the same were of great importance: That because letters were first found only to express him, therefore they had given him only and alone, the whole government therein, and were well contented therewith, until such time, as they had espied, not his misgovernment, but their own mischoice: that the bare and primitive inventions, being but rude, and accordingly rules, and experience now in time, growing to more fineness, why should they not yield to that in fines, upon better cause, whereunto they did yield in rudeness upon mere need? That no man having any sense in the right of writing, which experience had commended, would yield the direction to sound alone, which altereth still, and is never like to itself, as either the party pronouncer is of ignorance or knowledge: or the parties that pronounce, be of clear or stop delivery: or as the ear itself is of judgement to discern. That considering these defects, which pray for reformance, and the letter itself, which desireth some assurance of her own use, it might stand with his good pleasure, to admit to his counsel, two grave and great personages, which they had long thought on, through whose assistance he might the better govern the pen province.

Because they praised the parties so much, he desired their names. They answered Reason, to consider what will be most agreeable upon cause, and Custom to confirm that by experience and proof, which reason should like best, and yet neither to do anything, without conference with sound.

After that they had pressed him so near, though he were very loath, being once a sole monarch, to become half private by admitting of controllers, as he thought, rather than counselors, as they meant, yet perceiving that their power was such, as they might enforce him to that, which they prayed him to grant, if he should stand in terms with them, he was content to yield, though with some show of miscontentment in his very countenance, and to allow of Reason and Custom as his fellow governors in the right of writing.

For in very deed concerning the authority of these movers, wise and learned people, what so ever they lend ignorance to play with for a time, they reserve to themselves both judgement and authority, wherewith to control, when they see want of skill play the fool to much, as in this same quarrel for the alternation of sounds to presumptuous rule, they had very great reason. For as in faces, though every man naturally have two eyes, two ears, one nose, one mouth, and so forth, yet there is always such diversity in countenances, as any two men may easily be discerned, though they be as like as the Lacedæmonian princes, and brethren were, of whom Tully speaketh: so likewise in the voice, though in every one it pass through, by one mouth, one throat, one tongue, one sense of teeth, and so forth, yet is it as different in every one, even for giving the sound, by reason of some diversity in the vocal instruments, as the faces be different in resembling like form, by some evident distinction, in the natural portrait. Which diversity though it hinder not the delivery of every mans mind, yet is it too uncertain too rule every mans pen in setting down of letters.

And again, what reason had it too follow every mans ear, as a master scrivener, and too leave every mans pen too his own sound, where such difference was, as they could not agree, when where the right was, every one claim to it? and why not my ear best? Again why should ignorance in any respect be taken for a guide in a case of knowledge? because of their voices? that were too popular, where the argument is singular. Because of their wills? that were too willful, where wisdom should warrant. And therefore if any multitude, though of never so few, deserve to be followed, they only were, which could both speak best, and give best reason why. But that kind of people were too few at the first, to find any place against a popular government, where the ear led the ear, and why shall sound give over his interest, seeing letters were devised to express sound in every one of us, and not the conceit of these, and those few goodly wise fellows? And yet when corn was once in proof, acorns grew out of place, though a jolly mastie meat in a hoggish world. For naturally the first serves the turn, till the finer and better do come in presence. And as something gat place worthily of nothing, so must that something again, give place to his better: As sound did something to expel rudeness, though it may not bend itself, to keep out fineness.

Hereupon wise men would stand no longer to that diversity in writing, which necessarily did follow, when every one did spell so, as the instruments of his voice did fashion his sound, or as his cunning gave him, or as his ear could discern. All which means be full of variety, and never one in all, as it doth appear by whole nations, which cannot sound some letters, that some other can, as the Ephramite in scripture, which could not sound the first letter in Shibboleth being in Hebrew the same character with the first in Shibboleth: or as the witness in Tully , which by property of his country, could not sound the first letter in Fundanius , against whom he came.

Upon these miscontentments, and by consent of those, which could judge, and utter best, they grew to a certain, and a reasonable custom, or else to say truth, to a customary reason, which they held for a law, not unadvisedly hit on, by error and time, but advisedly resolved on, by judgement and skill. Neither yet, (which had been contrary to their promise) deprived they sound of all his royalty, which was dictator like, before, but they joined reason with him, and custom too, to begin then in right, and not in corruption after, as a Cæsar and a Pompey, to be his colleges in a triumvirate. From that time forward sound could do much, but nothing so much, as he could do before, being very many times, very justly overruled by his considerate companions, and fellows in office. Thus ended the monarchy of sound alone.

After that reason had brought both sound to this order, and custom to this authority, then was there nothing admitted in writing, but that only, which was subsigned by all their three hands. If the sound alone did serve, yet reason and custom must needs confirm sound: if reason must take place, both sound and custom must needs approve reason: if custom would be credited, he might not pass, unless both sound did sooth him, and reason did ratify him.

For the better continuance of this wise triumvirate, each of the three entertained such people, as were fittest for their families. Sound, because he presumed only upon his old authority not extinguished, though restrained, and needed no great train now in that his restraint, he therefore contented himself with such of his old retinue, as knew his first commission, which was granted unto him, when the device of letters came first to light. Who still had an eye to sound, and set down that letter, which was appointed thereunto, unless reason and custom had put in a caveat, that in such a case the commission must be altered.

Reason again took into his service, observation and comparison: Observation to mark what were fairest in sense, what were readiest in pen, what were currentest in use: Comparison to confer that, which he allowed in one, with that proportion, which he found in another, that the whole might be suitable.

Custom besides that he made very much of both sound and reasons retinue, as his very good friends, whereby he was commended to general practice, of himself and for himself, he entertained wariness, to be still like himself, and though he altered upon cause, as reason should inform him, yet to behave himself so, as he might easily be discerned from corruption in use, which was his natural enemy, and was always backed by the ignorant multitude, as custom itself was by those, that were of skill, both at his first planting, and throughout his performance. So had right sound, missounding too so, so had right reason, a slight show of appearance to adversary, which still carried the weaker brains, but could never move, either judgement or cunning.

During this compound government of these three, the matter of all our precepts, that belong to writing, did first grow to strength, then were rules grounded, then were exceptions laid, when reason and custom perceived cause why. But none of all these were yet commended to Art, and set down in writing, but fleeting in the memory, and observation of writers, having sufficient matter to furnish an institution, and the body of an Art, though not yet in method, which came next in place, and joined itself with the other three upon this occasion:

All this time, while reason and custom governed the pen, as well as sound, sounds malcontented friends did never rest but always sought means to supplant the two others, ever buffing into the ignorant ears that of sounds authority, and his right to his own delivery: and the same errors, which troubled the pen, while sound alone was the setter down, began to crepe in again, and cause a new trouble, in so much as all the ignoranter sort were clear of opinion that the very sternness of sound was only to be accepted without all exception, though those of learning and wisdom, which had both first set up reason and custom, as companions to sound, and still continued in the same mind, could very well discern usurpation from inheritance, and right from wrong.

Wherefore reason finding by this creping error both himself to be intuited by senseless time, and his good custom to be sore assailed by counterfeit corruption, perceived the fault to be for want of a good notary, and a strong obligation, wherewith to set that in everlasting authority, by right rule and true writing, which he and custom both, by the consent of sound, had continued in use, though not put down in writing, which would ever be in danger of continual revolt, from the best to the worst, by the uncertainty of time, and the elfishness of error, unless it were set in writing, and the conditions subscribed by all their contents, for a perpetual evidence against the repiner. For that is the difference, between a reasonable custom and an artificial method, that the first doth the thing for the second to assure, and the second assureth, by observing of the first.

While nothing was set down in writing, sound and his complices were in hope of some recovery, which hope was cut off, when the writings were made, and the conditions set certain. The notary to cut off all these controversies, and to breed a perpetual quietness in writing, was Art, which gathering all those roaming rules, that custom had beaten out, into one body, disposed them so in writing, as every one knew his own limits, reason his, custom his, sound his. Now when reason, custom and sound were brought into order, and driven to certainty by the mean of Art, and artificial method, then began the third the last and the best assurance in writing.

Art being herself in place perceived the direction of any whole tongue to be very infinite and hard, nay to be scant possible in general, considering the diverse properties that the three rulers, reason, custom, and sound have, which alter still with time. For what people can be sure of his own tongue any long while? doth not speech alter sometime to the finer, if the state where it is vsed, continue itself, and grow to better countenance, for either great learning, or other dealing, which use to prune a tongue? And doth it not sometime change to the more corrupt, if the state where it is vsed, do chance to be overthrown, and a master tongue coming in as conqueror, command both the people, and the people's speech too? Upon this consideration, what an infinite thing it were to chose out such a subject, as is so uncertain, Art took herself to some one period in the, of most and best account, and therefore fittest to be made a pattern for others to follow, and pleasantest for her self to travail and toil in. Upon which period she did bestow all those notes, which she did perceive by observation (which is secretary to reason) to be in the common use of speech, and pen, either clear with sound, or suitable to reason, or liked in custom, but still backed by them all.

Such a period in the Greek tongue was that time, when Demosthenes lived, and that learned race of the father philosophers: such a period in the Latin tongue, was that time, when Tully lived, and those of that age: Such a period in the English tongue I take this to be in our days, for both the pen and the speech.

To conclude and knit up the argument, this method and this order vsed the first tongue, that ever was brought to any right in writing, by the help whereof under the direction of Art, all those tongues which we now call learned, are come to that certainty, which we see them now in, through precept and rule. The same help will I use in my particular method.

Which before I deal with, I must examine two principal points in our tongue whereof one is, whether our tongue have stuff in it for art to build on,

That the English tongue hath in itself sufficient matter to work her own artificial direction, for the right writing thereof.

Some considering the great difficulty, which they found to be in the writing thereof, every letter almost being deputed to many, and several, nay to many and well-nigh contrary sounds and uses, every word almost either wanting letters, for his necessary sound, or having some more than necessity requireth, began to despair in the midst of such a confusion, ever to find out any sure direction, whereon to ground Art, and to set it certain. And what if either they did not seek, or did not know how to seek, in right form of Art, and the composing method? But whether difficulty in the thing, or infirmity in the searchers, gave cause thereunto, the parties them selves gave over the thing as in a desperate case, and by not meddling through despair, they helped not the right.

Yet notwithstanding all this, it is very manifest, that the tongue itself hath matter enough in itself, to furnish out an art, and that the same mean, which hath been vsed in the reducing of other tongues to their right, will serve this of ours, both for generality of precept, and certainty of ground, as may be easily proved by these four arguments, the antiquity of our tongue, the peoples with, their learning, and their experience. For how can it be, but that a tongue, which hath continued many hundred years, not only a tongue, but one of good account, both in speech, and pen, hath grown in all that time to some fineness, and assurance of itself, by so long and so general an use, though it be not as yet founded, the people that have vsed it, being none of the dullest, and travailing continually in all exercises that concern learning, in all practices that procure experience, either in peace or war, either in public, or private, either at home or abroad?

As for the antiquity of our speech, whether it be measured by the ancient Almane, whence it commeth originally, or even but by the latest terms which it borroweth daily from foreign tongues, either of pure necessity in new matters, or of mere bravery, to garnish itself withal, it cannot be young. Unless the Germane himself be young, which claimeth a prerogative for the age of his speech, of an infinite prescription: Unless the Latin and Greek be young, whose words we enfranchise to our own use, though not always immediately from them selves, but most what through the Italian, French, and Spanish: Unless other tongues, which be neither Greek nor Latin, nor any of the forenamed, from whom we have somewhat, as they have from ours, will for company sake be content to be young, that ours may not be old. But I am well assured, that every one of these, will strive for antiquity, and rather grant it to us, than forgo it themselves. So that if the very newest words, which we use do savor of great antiquity, and the ground of our speech be most ancient, it must needs then follow, that our whole tongue was weaned long ago, as having all her teeth.

For the account of our tongue, both in pen and speech, no man will doubt thereof, who is able to judge what those things be, which make any tongue to be of account, which things I take to be three, the authority of the people which speak it, the matter and argument, wherein the speech dealeth, the manifold use, for which the speech serveth. For all which three, our tongue needeth not to give place, to any of her peers.

First to say somewhat for the people, that use the tongue, the English nation hath always been of good credit, and great estimation, ever since credit and estimation by history came on this side the Alps, which appeareth to be true, even by foreign chronicles (not to use our own in a case of our own) which would never have said so much of the people, if it had been obscure, and not for an history, or not but well worthy of a perpetual history.

Next, for the argument, wherein it dealeth, whether private or public, it may compare with some others, that think very well of their own selves. For not to touch ordinary affairs in common life, will matters of learning in any kind of argument, make a tongue of account? Our nation then, I think, will hardly be proved to have been unlearned at any time, in any kind of learning, not to use any bigger speech. Wherefore having learning by confession of all men, and uttering that learning in their own tongue, for their own use, of very pure necessity (because we learn to use, and the use is in our own) they could not but enrich the tongue, and purchase it account.

Will matters of war, whether civil or foreign, make a tongue of account? Our neighbor nations will not deny, our people to be very warrious, and our own country will confess it, though loath to feel it, both remembering the smart, and comparing with some others, neither to vaunt our selves, nor to gall our friends, with any more words.

Now in offering matter to speech, war is such a breeder, as though it be opposite to learning, because it is enemy to the Muses, yet it dare compare with any point in learning, for multitude of discourses, though not commonly so certain, ne yet of so good use, as learned arguments be. For war (besides all grave and sad considerations about it, which be many and wise) as sometime it sendeth us true reports, either privately in projects and devises, that be intended, or publicly in events, which be blazed abroad, because they be don, so mostwhat it giveth out infinite and extreme, I dare not say lies, but very incredible news, because it may hatch them at will, being in no danger of controllment, and commonly in such practices and places, as have not many witness, while every man seeketh as well to save him self, as to harm his enemy, besides some courteous entertainment, which a devising referendary hath even by telling that, which is not true, to such as love to hear, and either like or will like. All which occasions, and infinite more, about stratagems, and engines, give matter to speech, and cause of new words, and by making it so ready, do make it of renown.

Will all kinds of trade, and all sorts of traffic, make a tongue of account? If the spreading sea, and the spacious land could use any speech, they would both show you, where, and in how many strange places, they have seen our people, and also give you to wit, that they deal in as much, and as great variety of matters, as any other people do, whether at home or abroad. Which is the reason why our tongue doth serve so many uses, because it is conversant with so many people, and so well acquainted with so many matters, in so sundry kinds of dealing. Now all this variety of matter, and diversity of trade, make both matter for our speech, and mean to enlarge it. For he that is so practised, will utter that, which he practiseth in his natural tongue, and if the strangeness of the matter do so require, he that is to utter, rather than he will stick in his utterance, will use the foreign term, by way of premunition, that the country people do call it so, and by that mean make a foreign word, an English denizen.

All which reasons concerning but the tongue, and the account thereof, being put together, as of themselves, they prove the nations exercise in learning, and their practice in other dealings: so they seem to infer no base witted people, not to amplify it with more, because it is not for fools to be so well learned, to be so warrious, to be so well practised. I shall not need to prove any of these my positions, either by foreign or home history: seeing my reader stranger, will not strive with me for them, and my own nation, will not gainsay me in them, I think, which knoweth them to be true, and may use them for their honor.

Wherefore I may well conclude my first position: that if use and custom having the help of so long time, and continuance, wherein to fine our tongue: of so great learning and experience, which furnish matter for the fining: of so good wits and judgments, which can tell how to fine, have griped at nothing in all that time with all that cunning, by all those wits, which they will not let go, but hold for most certain, in the right of our writing: that then our tongue hath no certainty to trust to , but writeth all at random. But the antecedent in my opinion, is altogether impossible, wherefore the consequent, is a great deal more than probable, which is, that our tongue hath in her own possession, and writing very good evidence to prove her own right writing: Which though no man as yet, by any public writing of his, seemeth to have seen, yet the tongue itself is ready to show them, to any whosoever, which is able to read them, and withal to judge, what evidence is right in the right of writing. Wherefore seeing I have proved sufficiently in my own opinion, that there is great cause, why our tongue should have some good right, in her own writing, and take myself to have had the sight of that evidence, whereby that same right appeareth most justifiable, and am not altogether ignorant, how to give sentence thereof, I will do my best, according to that course, which I said was kept in the first, and general fining of any speech, which also hath been translated to every secondary, and particular tongue, to set forth some certainty for the English writing, by those notes, which I have observed in the tongue itself, the pure best and finest therein, offering mean by comparison with them selves, both to correct, and to direct the worse and more gross, without either innovating anything, as they do, which set forth new devises, or by mistaking my way, as they do, which despair, that our tongue can be brought to any certainty, without some marvelous foreign help.

The use and custom of our country, hath already chosen a kind of penning, wherein she hath set down her religion, her laws, her private and public dealings: Every private man according to the allowance of his country in general, hath so drawn his private writings, his evidence, his letters, as the thing seemeth impossible to be removed by any so strange an alteration, though it be most willing to receive some reasonable pruning, so that the substance may remain, and the change take place in such points only, as may please without novelty, and profit without forcing. For were it not in good sooth, to violent a force, to offer to overthrow a custom, so generally received, so particularly settled, nay grounded so soundly, and sure, as it shall appear shortly, with altering either all, or most of our letters? Were it not an argument of a very simple orator, to think that he could persuade custom, by so strange an innovation, to divorce himself from so long, and so lawful a match? Nay were it not a wonderful wish, even but to wish that all our English scripture and divinity, all our laws and policy, all our evidence and writings, were penned anew, because we have not that set down in writing, which our elders did wish us, but either more, which they meant not, or less, which we would not, or not so as both they meant and we would? all this coming of the insufficiency of our writing, which is not able, to set that faithfully and fully down, which the mind conceiveth, but either we the more, or the less, or disagreeing in the manner? But they will say that they mean not any so main a change. But they must needs mean it, because it must either presently follow upon the admitting of this new alteration, which is too main in sense, or within some years, which is too main in thought. For a new writing coming in under hand, and the old character growing out of knowledge, all that evidence in whatsoever English kind, must needs either come over too the new fashion, or be subject too the frump, and remain worm-eaten like an old relic, and so too be read, as the Roman religion, written under Numa Pompilius was by then of Tully's time, when every word was uncouth and strange, as if it had cum from some other world, than where it was penned. But am I not in hand with a needless travail, not allowing that, which I need not fear, because there is no danger in it, the very use of our country refusing it already? I grant I am. But yet I must say somewhat, not too seem too contemn: as if I say nothing, the contrary than may seem too have said some thing. But sure I take the thing too be profitable, but where no likelihood of any profit at all doth appear in sight, and the change itself seemeth, neither necessary as too the better, neither voluntary, as too the readier, which be two principal respects in writing, I allow not the mean, though I mislike not the men, which deserve great thanks for their great good will, though their works take no place. For their labor is very profitable too help some redress forward, though themselves hit it not. For while diverse men attempt to lay the thing in certain, some one or other will hit it at the last, whereas too the contrary, the case were desperate, if it were never dealt in. But this amendment of theirs is too far set, and without the help thereof we understand our print and pen, our evidence and other writing, in what kind soever. And though we grant some imperfection, as in a tongue not yet raked from her troubled lees, yet we do not confess, that it is too be perfected either by altering the form, or by increasing the number of our acquainted letters, but only by observing, where the tongue of her self, and her ordinary custom doth yield too the fining, as the old, and therefore the best method doth lead us. For it is no argument, when faults be found, too say this is the help and only this, because none other is in sight. But whensoever the right is found by orderly seeking, then the argument is true, that it was not thoroughly sought, when it was denied too be. And too speak indifferently between the letter and the sound, of the one side, and custom and the letter, of the other side: letters can express sounds withal their joints and properties, no fuller than the pencil can the form and lineaments of the face, whose praise is not life but likeness: as the letters yield not always the same, which sound exactly requireth, but always the nearest, wherewith custom is content. And therefore if a letter sound not jump as ye wish, yet hold it as the next, least if you change you cum not so near. And though one letter be vsed in diverse nay, in contrary sounds: or soundish effects, ye cannot avoid it by any change that will be liked, seeing no one else hath been liked hitherto, but this which we use, which custom doth allow in ours by continuance, and consent in other tongues confirmeth by allowance. Certainly by so much as I have observed, I think we are as well appointed for our necessities that way, and as much bound too our general custom, for the artificial notes of our natural tongue, as any other people is, too any other language, whether ancient in books, or modern in speech. And whatsoever insufficiency seemeth too be in the writing thereof, it will excuse itself, and lay the whole fault upon the insufficient observer, for not seeking the right in it, by a right way, which will appear to be true, when it shall be seen, that by sufficient observation it may be set clear, and pure, without any foreign help, of either altering the form, or increasing the number of our ordinary letters, but only by bare notes of her own breeding, which being already in use desire nothing else, but some direction by Art, which I am in good hope to perform, according to the plat of the best refiners, in the most refined tongues, with such consideration as either breedeth any general rules, or else must bear with particular exceptions. I will mark what our customary writing will yield unto us by way of note, without dreaming of change, which change is a thing not possible to pass against so violent a fall, as custom runs with, though that violence itself offer no kind of wrong to any other thing, being altogether full of her own stream. I will therefore do my best to confirm our custom in his own right, which will be easily obtained, where men be acquainted with the matter already, and would be very glad to see wherein the right of their writing standeth, and a great deal more glad to find it so near, when they sought it, and thought it to be further off. Thus have I run through these pretended infirmities in our tongue, whose physicking I like not this way, and therefore I will join close with my own observation, to see if that will help. The right writing of our English therefore by way of description is, a certain reasonable course, to direct the pen by such rules, as are most conformable, to the propriety of sound, the consideration of reason, and the smoothing of custom jointly, especially in those points of our writing where there is some difficulty and disagreement both in opinion of the writers, and in nature of the letters, concerning too much, too little, or too diverse. Too much, as the doubling of consonants in the end of a word, as putt, grubb, ledd, for put, grub, led, and a thousand such ignorant superfluities. Whereas the rule is, that no consonant must be doubled in any word at all, or in any place of the word at all, but only where either consonant belongeth to several syllables, as in syl-lab. witting, saving ff, and ll, in the end upon great occasions, which shall be noted hereafter. Too little, as fech, scrach, herafter, singly for fetch, scratch, hereafter, singely: where for the first two the rule is, that, t, is to be written before ch, in such derivatives, as have t, in the primitive, as set, scrat, which is so much used as it maketh a rule of itself almost, and causeth t, be commonly written, even where either there is no primitive at all with t, or not any in such a sense, as the derivative seems to be of. For the last, the rule is, that our English compounds are lightly made of the whole simples, without leasing one letter: and that if any be left out, it is figuratively by either contraction, as single for singlely, or for readiness in writing without further reason, which is most seen in the silent e, whereof I will speak hereafter. As in therin, loftiness, for therein, loftieness. Too diverse, as in choíce anoìnt, boùght, boúght, sòm, hóme, ìf, íf, gìue gíue, lòue lóue, mòther, móther, recòrd, recórde, and a number more such, which be the chief causes why our writing is so charged with so great confusion. And yet all this great confusion is easily to be certained, without any more ado, than the mere following of reason, custom, and sound, in our own tongue, as shall be plainly proved. And if there need any difference, or distinction to the eye, for directing either the English infant, which must learn, or the infant stranger, which desires to learn, some little note of distinction, or some known accent over the less usual will avoid that confusion, which is so much pretended, and confirm itself by following the first tongues, in that kind of distinguishing. The two points of too much and too little will be soon redressed, as most what proceeding from the ignorant writer, which will reform himself, when he shall see cause why, and a corrected president, the which he may follow. The last for diversity is a matter of mere cumber, and yet shall be so handled, as I do not fear, but to win both consent and allowance. For the helping of these unruly fellows, and the certaining of our pen, I do follow these seven precepts, General Rule, Proportion, Composition, Derivation, Distinction, Enfranchisement, and Prerogative. The causes why I have reduced all the observations of our right writing, to these seven heads be these. The first thing, that is considered in any compound matter, is the simples whereon the compound is made, which in this argument is the nature of each letter. Whose general examining, and ascertaining I have recommended to the first of my seven precepts, which I call general rule. The next thing that is considered in a compound is the use and handling of the simples, which make the composition, being put to their proof in the thing compounded. Which proof in this argument consisteth in words, because letters do serve for the delivery of words. Now all words be either mere English, or in corporate strangers, which either follow one suitable sound in speech, and the like resemblance in pen, or agreeing in the one, disagree in the other. For the certaining of this uncertainty, I appoint two precepts of the seven, Proportion, and Enfranchisement.

Again, all words, whether natural or denizens, be either simple or compound, either primitives or derivatives. For the directing whereof two other precepts serve, Composition and Derivation.

Again, because the time and quantity of syllables, and the tune and quality thereof do cause sometime much controversy and difference in the right use of writing, I have therefore joined the rule of distinction unto these five. Wherein I handle the use of all those characters, which the eye doth behold, either in pen or print besides the letters: because those characters, do help and qualify the expressing, and utterance of words and sentences, as the letters alone do express and utter them.

Again, because both sound and custom will show some one trick of their private authority, in the most pride of Art, which dependeth altogether of reason, I have therefore knit up all the seven with the rule of prerogative, where the general direction of any of the other is sometime thwarted by nature of exception, occasioned sometime by the sound, sometime by custom, both being desirous to show their own efficacy. All which my rules I refer to the writing, more than to the print. For in the print the difficulty is not so soon spied, as it is in writing: because the printing character being once cast in metal, what difficulty is there afterward? In the pen which is still to stamp, and to make new characters every foot, though of the same form, the commodity of the hand is most to be considered, that the character be fair to the eye, commodious to the joint, and swift to dispatch. And therefore he that will judge of my opinion in this argument, wherein my special regard is, to the facility and right in writing, rather than in printing though the one help the other, when it is well settled, must not mark what the print setteth down in the general stamping, where the printers, setters, and corrector's oversight sometimes playeth a part, and letteth many errors abide in their work: but what I myself do bind myself unto by my own precept. For that I will warrant, the other I cannot, though I do what I can. The writing is my chief care, which will be my chief credit herein, if it prove to be current, and active.

General rule, wherein the nature, and force of every particular letter is examined.

I call the first of those means, whereby the right writing of our English tongue is to be assured, according to that certainty, which our common use doth seem to have chosen General rule, whose peculiar duty is, to ascertain our right writing, either by main grounds, teaching throughout the whole tongue, or by limiting the force of every particular character, whether it be distinction to help our pronouncing, or else letter, whereby we pronounce. By this description it appeareth, that the rules which belong to right writing in this kind, be either general to the tongue, or particular to the character. The former sort of the two do back the latter, like the general truth of their main reason, upon the former, and the particular credit of their own argument upon themselves. And yet they both have but that assurance in nature, which reason, custom, and sound have agreed upon by consent, and willed Art to set it down, as a covenant of theirs. The general rules, which be the main grounds of the whole tongue, be either known conclusions, already handled and won, or such consequents as follow them of necessity, as these be.

1) That the body of each letter and distinction is creature to devise, and the use thereof to our consent. 2) That reason, sound, and custom direct right writing jointly, and are not to be severed, in giving the cause, why words be so written. 3) That the right in writing is a thing to be found out in our use, as of acquaintance, and not to be forced in upon our use, as a stranger. 4) That in reforming things of common practice the clearing of the old, which is abused, and not the breeding of a new, which is untried, is the natural amendment. 5) That in common executions, the common favor is the common furtherer. 6) That even by reasons leave the very pen and dispatch in writing, will have one ore in the right of writing, and serve itself with some private trick. 7) That to have the most well, you must yield to some particularities of best reason. 8) That no rule of Art can deal so, but it must leave many particularities to daily practice, to be learned by oft using, and such like observations, which be common stays both for Art to direct by, and the pen to write by.

E

E Besides the common difference of time and tune, is a letter of marvelous use in the writing of our tongue, and therefore it seemeth to be recommended unto us especially above any other letter, as a chief governor in the right of our writing. Which e, though it be sometime idlely written, either of ignorance, if the writer be unlearned, and know not how to write, or of negligence, if he be learned, and mark not his hand, yet most times it is written to great purpose, even where it seemeth idle, before the force of it be considered, and hath a very great saying in each of the seven precepts, as shall be declared in every of them particularly.

And first for rule, the first of the seven precepts, this is to be noted of E, that it either soundeth or is silent, and that either in the former or in the last syllables. But first of the last, where it either endeth the syllable itself, or with some other consonant, or consonants after. Whensoever E, is the last letter, and soundeth, it soundeth sharp, as me, see, we, agree. saving if the article ye the pronoun, and in Latin words, or of a Latin form, when they be vsed English like, as certiorare quandare, where e, soundeth full and broad after the original Latin.

Whensoever e, is the last, and soundeth not, it either qualifieth some letter going before, or it is mere silent, and yet in neither kind increaseth it the number of syllables. I call that E, qualifying, whose absence or presence, sometime altereth the vowel, sometime the consonant going next before it. It altereth the sound of all the vowels, even quite through one or more consonants as, made, stem, eche, kinde, stripe, ore, cure, toste sound sharp with the qualifying E in their end: whereas, mad, stem, ech, friend, strip, or, cut, tost, contract of tossed sound flat without the same E, And therefore the same loud and sharp sound in the word, calleth still for the qualifying e, in the end, as the flat and short needeth it not. It qualifieth no ending vowel, because it followeth none in the end, saving i. as in day, may, say, truly, safety, where it maketh i, either not to be heard, or very gently to be heard, which otherwise would sound loud and sharp, and must be expressed by y. as, deny, aby, ally. Which kind of writing shall be noted hereafter. It altereth also the force of, c, g, s, though it sound not after them, as in hence, for that, which might sound henk, if any word ended in c. in swing differing from swing, in use differing from us. I call that e, mere silent, which though it neither sound, nor qualify any letter, yet may it not be spared from the ends of five kinds of words. First of foreign denizens, which are derived from originals ending in s, though being not the last letter of their ending syllable, as, case, cause, verse, diverse, repose, nose. Secondly of those words, which end in s. sounding like a z. and have a vowel next before the s, as the silent e, after, as cruse, excuse, abuse, snese, wise, amase. Thirdly of words ending in v, the consonant, as craue, deceiue, glove, love, throve, move, shrove. Fourthly after l, in combination with any consonant, as whistle, gristle, wrestle, wrangle, frisle, britle, trikle. saving where v, the consonant commeth before l, in the same proportion of sound like to these, where the e, is passant (whereof I will say somewhat straight way) and therefore is written before the l. though it show the very like force, to the mere silent, e, after the l, as divel, rivel, ravel, shovel. In which words, both the ending l, is single, as not bearing the fall of e. like to well, knell, swell: and the proportion is like to rifle, wifle, snafle, snufle, shuffle. The consonant before l, is not to be doubled, for making two syllables of one, because the e, sounds not, which it should do of necessity, if it made a syllable. But why may not these also be written, rivle, drivle, divle, and c. letting the consonant v, answer her cousin f. in wifle, trifle, rifle, the kindred between them being still so great, as it appeareth in wife, wiuè, thrift, thriuè, drift, driuè, and a number such. Fifthly, after the double ss, in the end, which why it is doubled, it shall be noted hereafter, as witness, worthiness, redress. For wheresoever the long s, endeth the word, the silent e, will follow, like to a silent Hebrew Schwa in the ending K, which they call Caph. Now the form of s, in this doubling must needs be long, because it must answer the first, which is long, and therefore must needs have the silent e. Some use the same silent e, after r, in the end, as lettre cedre, childre, and such, where methink it were better to be the flat e, before r, as letter, ceder, childer and so childern rather than children, unless ye will form of child, childer, childeren, and so by contraction children, cutting away the former e: or children, cutting away the latter.

E. when it endeth the last syllable, with one or more consonants coming after it, either soundeth flat and full, and maketh a syllable, as in rest, wretch, discent, or it is passant and soundeth quick like the fine gentle i, mostwhat not increasing the number of syllables as written, gotten, saith. This e, passant and the gentle, be of such affinity, as they do oft times interchange places, as indite, induce, intent, or endite, enduce, entent. Generally words that end in the qualifying or silent e, when they put s, unto them in their derivatives, they make the e, passant, as time, times, wise, wives, pipe, pipes. without increase of syllables, and are therefore to be spelt together.

E, ending any former syllable soundeth of itself broad, and longish, as reprehend, delegate, unless it be a derivative or compound of some sharp ending e, which answereth the primitive or simple in the first sound, as agreeing, of agree, foreseeth, of foresee. If it end the syllable with any consonant after, it is flat, as entending, repentant.

It is never silent in any former syllable, but in composition, where the whole simple word is to be written, as in wherefore, hereupon, henceforth, in the two former, the prerogative of custom using e, in the end, where, here, contrary to the proportion, in hear, wear, ear: in the last the qualifying e, accompanying her simple hence. In the titles of distinction and derivation there shall be more said of the silent and qualifying e, both where they be to be vsed, and where not in the respect of the timing and tuning of words.

I

If it end the last syllable with one or more consonants after it, it is shrill when the qualifying e, followeth, and if it be shrill, the qualifying e, must follow, as repíne, unwíse, mínde, kínde, físte. If it be flat and quick, the qualifying e, must not follow, as examine, mist, fist. If i, end a middle syllable, with a consonant or more after, it followeth the flat ending sound, as coincident, imprinting. If it be a derivative of a sharp primitive, it soundeth sharp, and casteth his primitive consonant over to the next syllable, as repine, requite, enquire, repineth, requiting, enquired, because a consonant coming between two vowels in any simple word must be spelled with the latter. Sometime the qualified consonant must keep his own e, if the addition begin with a consonant, as entice, endite, enticement, enditement, which in enticing, enditing leaseth the e. because the addition beginneth with i. I, in the same proportion soundeth now sharp, as gíve, thríve, alíve, wíve, títle, bíble, now quick, as gìve, lìve, sìve, tìtle, bìble, which sounds are to be distinguished by accent, if acquaintance will not seem in much reading: But this is a point, that the title of distinction hath taken to charge. The quick i, and the gentle passant e, are so near of kin, as they interchange places with pardon, as in descryed, or descryd, findeth, or findith, her, or her, the error is no heresy.

O

O is a letter of as great uncertainty in our tongue, as e, is of direction both alone in vowel, and combined in diphthong. The cause is, for that in vowel it soundeth as much upon the u, which is his cousin, as upon the o, which is his natural, as in còsen, dòsen, mòther, which o, is still naturally short, and hósen, frósen, móther, which o, is naturally long. In the diphthong it soundeth more upon the u, than von the o, as in found, wound, cow, sow, bow, how, now, and bów, sów, wróught, oúght, mów, tróugh. Notwithstanding this variety, yet our custom is so acquainted with the use thereof, as it will be more difficulty to alter a known confusion, than profitable to bring in an unknown reformation, in such an argument, where acquaintance makes justice, and use doth no man wrong. And yet where difference by note shall seem to be necessary the titles of proportion and distinction will not omit the help. In the mean time thus much is to be noted of o: besides his time long and short, besides his tune with or without the qualifying e, sharp or flat, that when it is the last letter in the word, it soundeth sharp and loud, as agó, tó, só, nó save in tò the preposition twò the numeral, dò the verb: his compounds as undò, his derivatives as dòing. In the middle syllables, for tune, it is sharp, as here or flat if a consonant end the syllable after o. For time the polysyllable will betray itself in our daily pronouncing: considering though children and learners be ignorant, yet he is a very simple teacher, that knoweth not the tuning of our ordinary words, yea, though they be enfranchised, as ignorant, impudent, impotent. O varieth the sound in the same proportion, nay oft times in the same letters, as lòve, glòve, dòve, shòve, remòve and lóve, gróve shróve, nóve. This double sound of o, in the vowel is Latinish, where o, and u, be great cousins, as in voltus, voltis, colo And vultus, voltis, occulo: in the diphthong it is Greekish, for they sound their ou, still upon the u, though it be contract of oo, or os, wherein as their president is our warrant against objection in these, so must acquaintance be the mean to discern the double force of this letter, where we find it, and he that will learn our tongue, must learn the writing of it too, being no more strange than other tongues be even in the writing.

Diphthongs.

I called the diphthong a combination of vowels: ai, decay, oi, anoint, ow, allow, uy, buy.

Of the consonants.

This is a general note to be observed in writing of all the consonants, that none of them is to be doubled, but where they are referred to diverse syllables, the former ending the former syllable, and the latter beginning the next, as in bud-ding, strip-ped, buf-fet-ting, be gin-ning, and c. Whereby it appeareth, that no consonant can be doubled in the end of a word, because there is no syllable to follow: and that therefore the doubling of the last syllable is mere oversight. For if ye write putt with a double, t, is not the syllable ended in the first put? and wherefore then serveth the latter, t? Some when they have doubled the consonant, will put an e to it, which is to make two syllables, where they mean but one, as putte: because of the rule, that the doubled consonants are referred to diverse syllables. Why ll, and ss, be doubled in the end contrary to this rule, it shall be shown in the handling of those letters.

Where, by the way it is to be noted, that the e passant after a double ss, as in lessen, to make less, or a double ll, as in fallen, and such like, increaseth no syllables, and that therefore the double ss, is not divided, though a vowel follow.

F, hath two forces, whereof the first is general for the Greek ph, in whose place, we may use our f, still, if we will measure our writing by an English ear, as the Italians do in their writing, commonly setting down, philosophy, orthography, and such like with the Latin f, as why not? For thereby we deliver our people, which know no foreign learning, from seeking of enfranchisements and yet we leave the learned, which know them, to the liberty of that, which they know. The second force of f, is like to v, the consonant, which I use to call cousins, because of their correspondence in change, as bereave, bereft, leave lest, cleave cleft. In if, and of, though we see f, we here v, ive, ove, yet the adverb of distance useth the f, still, like ph, as I speak of him, which commeth afar of.

G, is always strong before a.o.u. whether single vowels or in diphthongs as, gay, gant, god, good, gout, gut, gulling. Likewise before r, or l, as grave, grant, glance, glue. And in the end of any syllable, where the qualifying e followeth not, as in long, tongue, unless the qualifying e, be left out, for some addition, which beginneth of a vowel, as, range, ranging, swing, swinging, for in that place g, is weak. As it is also and always before the qualifying e, as cage, huge, drudge, smudge, hedge, dodge. It is sometime strong, sometime weak before i, and e, contrary to the Latin, where it is always weak before the same vowels, though not contrary to the Greek and Hebrew. This variety of force before these two letters seemeth to give some matter to confusion in our writing. For as it is weak in these, gentle, ginger, gin, germane, and such: so is it strong in these, geld, guess, gilt, begin, gìg, gét and such, and therefore no marvel if we write, college of collegium, and college of collega, with the same letters, seeing our g is capable of both the forces before the same e. This necessary distinction hereof shall appear in the title of distinction. But why do some use to put an u, after the strong g, in some places, as in guise, guide, guest, beguile, and not write them all without the u, and with the g only, as gird, girth, girdle, getting? And why may not these words be written, gise, gest, guide, begile, as well as begin, beget, seeing both our g, is strong before these vowels, and the difference noted, and g, with the u after is of another property in use, as language, guise, Guichiardine, Guinn, guerdon? I see no cause why, but that the u, may well enough be left out.

H, is an aspiration, whose force before all vowels and diphthongs is easy to be perceived, as Henry, hunter, have, him, home, hawthorn, how, hew, holiday. Sometime it is written, without any force in utterance, as in many enfranchised words, as honest, humble, host, hospice. Where the vowel after h, is heard, as if there went no aspiration before. What force the h, is of after consonants in combustion, I will show straight way.

K, serveth for the strong c, before e, and i, as in Kent, kitchen, kin, King. It goeth before no consonants but n, as knave, know, and l, with the e silent after, as pekle, pikle, trikle, cakle. Which are to be written with k, before the l, because the simples be pek, pik, trick. Whereby it appeareth that the Greek ch, must of force be vsed in Christ, christian, christen, and c. because k leadeth no more consonants, but n, and l, with the silent, e. K followeth s, where c, would be weak, as in skirmish, skirt, skrap otherwise c, as scape, scope, scour sculler. Where the same force is doubled, the former also must be k, if the simple end in k, quikker, thikker, thwakker, of, quik, thik, thwak, otherwise c, may serve and supply the room.

L, is still of one force in itself, as laudable, willing. Howbeit in respect of a, and o, going before it, and sounding like diphthongs it is doubled in the end of such words, as small, call, brall, boll, roll, troll. But when any other consonant followeth l, the a and o sound still like diphthongs, and yet the l, is but single, as in falst, fault, malt, halt, cold, old, colt, dolt, rolf, bold, bolt. Hereupon, all, in composition before a natural consonant, hath but a single l, as albeit, also, almost, otherwise a double, as president of these two, all, and oll, may not induce the doubling of all other terminations in l, as well, bell, shrill, still, full, scull, which doubling of the last ll, seemeth most agreeable both to reason and use, where the vowels sound hard upon the l, as it doth in these. But if the vowel sit not so hard, as in diphthongs, where the length of the vowels sound breaketh the force, that should light upon the l, as in mail, fail, hail, recoil, foil, and such as, divel, evil, rivel, why should the l, be doubled? It is the swiftness of the pen sure, which can hardly stay upon the single ending l, that causeth this doubling.

X, beginneth no English words, but endeth many, as wax, vex, yex, and goeth into the middle of their derivatives, as waxing, vexeth, yexing, and with the qualifying e, axe, without ax, pax, wax. Which words be severed from those that end in ks, because ks, endeth plural numbers as pack, packs, rack, racks, whereas the singulars, or primitives, have in the plural number and derivatives, es, or en, as fox, foxes, fixen, vexes, yexes, oxen, axes.

Z, is a consonant much heard amongst us, and seldom seen. I think by reason it is not so ready to the pen as s, is, which is become lieutenant general to z, as reason, season, where z, is heard, but s, seen. It is not lightly expressed in English, saving in foreign enfranchisements, as azure, treasure. In the same proportion is s and as, is as strangely used.

The combination of consonants, which I called couplements, be of two sorts, either consonants coupled to them selves, as thw, in thwak, shr, in shrink stl, in whistle, and such, which never change their force: or consonants with, h, the aspiration, as ch, gh, ph, ch, sh, th, wh. Whereof, gh, ph, ch, sh, wh, never change their force but continue still one, as cough, rough, Philip, diphthong, rhetoric, shame, shrewd, whence, which. Whereof ph, and th be Grecians, the rest English.

Ch, forceth sometime strong like k, as in Christ, chrism, christian, character, archangel, monarch, stomach, sometime weak, as in archdeacon, wretch, church, which seemeth originally to be of a double k, Kirk. Our English ch, commeth from the Latin c, as, chaplain, chancellor, chaste, of capellanus, cancellarius, casta like the Italian force of c. Likewise, th, holdeth sometime strongly, upon the aspiration, as in thin, thick, sometime it yieldeth like a temporizer to a meaner weakness, as thine, thither.

Thus much of rule both general for the whole tongue, and particular for the force of every letter, and character, whether for the quality, or for the sound of our voice. Whereby methink that the greatest difficulty in our writing riseth about the uncertain force of, i, and, o, the vowels, oi, oy, ou, ow, the diphthongs, c,g,s, the consonants, ch, and th, the couplements, all which shall be directed sufficiently, in the title of distinction.

Of proportion.

I call that proportion, when a number of words, of like sound are written with the like sound have not the like letters, the cause why is shown, a in hear, fear, dear, gear, wear, the like proportion is kept: in where, here, there it faileth by prerogative, because our custom, hath won that writing in such adverbs of place : in mere it faileth by enfranchisement, because it commeth of the Latin merus, ra, rum. And therefore proportion, as all other rules, consisteth upon general precept and private exception.

This rule of proportion, hath always been of great account, for directing of speech and pen, as they that be learned in the matter of speech, and the writers of that argument, do know of themselves, without my alleging of any Analogous authors of any foreign tongue, Latin or other. All the words in our English tongue come within the compass of proportion, upon some occasion or other: either because there is none but it hath more of the same sound, or but it may have more in time, seeing new occasions breed new words. Again, all the words which we use in our tongue, be either monosyllables, that is but of one syllable, which be the most of our natural English: or bisyllables of two, whereof there be some certain English, and as many strangers: or polysyllables, of more than two, which be altogether enfranchised, saving some certain English derivatives or compounds, which fall not within this rule, because they have titles of their own.

Wherefore considering our mere English words be mostwhat monosyllables, I will deal with them first, then with the bisyllables, last of all, with the polysyllables, by order of the vowel or diphthong, which leadeth the syllable, and therefore the proportion. I call that a syllable, which hath one sounding vowel in it, how many consonants soever either go before or come after it, as, no, one, able, whistle, driven, raken, thoughts, thrice, frock, stretch, strength, starvedst, frumpst. For the qualifying and silent e, increase no syllables, as neither the passant in most places, which shall be noted hereafter. All which letters children would be taught to spell together, holding such a filling, e, as no sounder, to make a new syllable thereby, as har-den, wri-ten, for harden, written, two syllables by misspelling for, two monosyllables in nature.

Here by the way the reader shall understand that in this rule of proportion I will not meddle with any derivative which comes of other, whether contract, as scratcht, of scratched, or plural numbers, as matches of match, or any such else, where the putting to of one letter or more, doth cause the difference: saving only where the derivative in sense, seemeth a primitive in form, as the plurals of man, mouse, louse, foot, cow, be men, mice, lice, feet, kine, which form seemeth rather to be original, than derived of any other.

A

No English word endeth in, a, but in ay, as decay, assay, which writing and sound our use hath won. A, alone is the English article, which cometh generally next before substantives, as a mane, a man, unless some adjective part them, as, a tall man, a long mane. This a joining with substantives by way of composition, so altereth their force, as they signify indeed, quite another thing. For when we say, he comes apace, he goes aside, he looks aloft, he went along, we mean not the same, that we do in these speeches, a swift pass, a sore side, a windy loft, a long way. The president of this compound a, causeth us oft times to write foreign words, with single consonants, which double the same in their own tongue as abbay, abbandon, abbase, abbate: with one b, abay, abandon, abase, abate because of their analogy and proportion with a bay a bandy, a base, a bate, which be known English terms, and being uttered quick bring forth the same sounds. Neither is it any wonder that our tongue useth a single consonant, where the original doubleth, as base, of bassus, pase, of passus. This, a, before vowels, diphthongs, and the aspiration h, is an, as an epistle, an auditor, an honest man. Where the question is, whether e, in any be needful, considering in our speaking the, ne, seemeth to join with the vowel that followeth, according to that rule which teacheth us, that a consonant coming between two vowels must be spelled with the latter, as be-ne-fi-ci-all unless the words be compound, as an-o-ther, ab-o-lish, because then the simple syllable kept her own combination still, as in the examples before. And because it seemeth to be so in these words, an-other, an-hell, an-honest man, as if they were but one word compounded of two, the qualifying e, doth seem needless, as it is in those words, which be derived from the qualified terminations, and begin their addition with some vowel, as pray, praying, amaze, amazing, repute, reputing, deprave, depraveth, where the qualifying e, is left out, and the consonant before it is put to the next syllable. And seemeth it not to be so in all those words, which end in the qualifying e, before another word beginning with a vowel, as my own?

C, alone endeth no syllable but with the qualifying e, after it, as ace, trace, race, face, which termination by ee, I take to be most natural for this sound in our tongue, both because many enfranchised words have the same end, as face, grace, space, and ace, with the s, and it is lightly the termination of enfranchised words, case, base. Monosyllables, that is natural English words of one syllable, seem to be written with c, as the enfranchised polysyllables be, tabernacle, barnacle, treacle, spectacle, but they are indeed written with, k, as hackle, cackle, tackle, shackle, both because of their primitive hack, tack, shake, and also because k, goeth before l, after a vowel, but not before, as in clamp, cling, clout where c, leadeth and not k.

Act, fact, contract, and such come from the Latin, and be therefore written with ct. but baked, paked, thwaked, raked, craked. Some write baked and so on with c, before the k, but wrong, because c, commeth not before k but when they be to be referred to diverse syllables, as ac-know-ledge, like accompany, where the same consonant being doubled importeth two syllables.

I

I said before that i, ending the last syllable, and sounding loud was expressed by y, as qualify, exemplify, for many good causes, considering we have admitted y, for a vowel: And that the quick ending i, is always qualified by e, as verily, truly. Before consonants in the last syllable i. soundeth thus. Squib, rib, crib, and with the qualifying e, bribe, scribe, gibe. In wise and such, the s. is enforced by very derivation and composition, besides the zeddish sound, as wisdom. I find none of this sort, but which and rich, with e. The rest have, t, before ch as stitch, pitch, fitch, witch, thiken, chiken, quicken. I, lighting full upon the, l, doubleth it, as shrill, spill, will. The single, l, with the qualifying e, after, while, beguile, bile, filch, milk, silk. Quilt, tilt, spilt, hilt, filth. Swim, grim, brim, and with the qualifying, e, grime, slime, time, lime. Thimble, nimble. simple, pimple, Shrimp, imp. Win, twin, pin, chin, and with the qualifying, e, wine, twine, pine, chine, quince, winch, clinch, not, coming between ch, and the consonant before. With e after s, it soundeth mostwhat upon the z, as wise, yet in the same form we write thrise, of another sound, but why not thrice, which termination never acquainteth itself with z?

O

O, in the end is said to sound loud, as go, shro, fro, saving, to, do, two, and so on. Hob, cob, bob, rob, and with the qualifying e, robe, noble. O, before, l, sounding like a diphthong causeth the ll, be doubled, as troll. And if a consonant follow, l, o, commonly hath the same force, though the l, be but single, told, cold, bold, colt, dolt, bolt, scold, dissolve. O, before m, in the beginning, or middle of a word, leading the syllables soundeth flat upon the o, as omnipotent, commend, but in the end it soundeth still upon, the u, as some, come, dome, and therefore in their derivatives, and compounds as welcome, troublesome, newcomer, cumbersome, kingdom. With e, after the m, as home, Rome, and yet whom, from, have no, e, by prerogative of use, though they have it in sound and seeming. But were it not better, that all such exceptions were reduced to their Analogy? If every tongue had not the like exceptions, I might happily think, that that were the best. On, likewise in beginnings and middles soundeth upon the o, in the ends, chiefly of enfranchisements upon the u, as disposition, circumspection, action. In some few words of one or two syllables, it soundeth upon the o, as on, anon, upon, and with the qualifying, e, gone, mone, alone, throne, one: one, in some words answereth the proportion of the, e, passant, without increasing of syllables, as capon, weapon answer to cheape, threapen. Pot, sot, not, and with the qualifying e, cote, note, throte. Othe, lothe, wrothe, and without the e, broth, moth. We sound both like the first, and write it like the last.

Of composition.

The force of every letter being opened by Rule, and the place of every one being limited by proportion, the next point in natural method is to examine, whether the words, whose force is this, and room is thus, be simple but for pure syllables, or compound of more words. For the bare word, which is handled in proportion, is sometime set down by itself without further addition of any either significant word, or not significant particle, as after, doom, kin. Sometime it hath one or more significant words joined unto it, which yet indeed make but one word, when they are so linked, howsoever they signify in their several uses, as afterdeal, whereabout, howsoever, doomsday, kinsman, sometime it hath some more put to it, though that, which is put to, being set alone signify nothing, and yet in the addition alter the signification of the original word, as Fineness, thraldom, fiery, desirous, kings, woes, agreeth, sees, witches. Of these three kinds the first is dispatched in proportion, the last hath a proper title of derivation, the middle and compound is to be handled is this place.

Therefore that word is called compound, which is made of two or more simple words, whereof every one signifieth somewhat agreeable to the composition, even when they are vsed alone, if they be ever vsed all alone. For, as catchpoll, churchyard, outlaw, signify by their particular words vsed alone, so beached, gainstand, awry, unbind, be made of two words, whereof the former three be, gain, a, be never vsed alone in any such sense, as they imply in their composition, the last, un, is never vsed at all alone and answereth the Latin privation, inas indoctus.

Now these compound words be either mere English, or clear strangers: mere English as when they and they and their parcels be altogether English words, as comecase, headstall, headman, cupboard. Clear strangers, when their substance is mere foreign, though their livery be English for some manner of their writing and utterance, squared to our sounds in the like proportion, as presuppose, infringe, circumstance, orthography, philosophy. Ye shall sometime have a word mongrel compound, half foreign, half English. Headlong, wharfage, princelike.

As for the foreign compositions they be enfranchised whole, though with some English hew, yet so as their strangership may appear. And such as be compounded with the Latin prepositions, have them also clear most what. Which Latin prepositions when we use before our words, we fashion them to clasp with our letters following, as the Latins do in the like cause, as displease, disease, disworship, complain, contain. Affaires, afford. Income. Howbeit we use their pewfellows, which answer to them in our tongue commonly after the words: As go before, come behind, sit beneath, speak of, run from , stand between. The foreign prepositions be generally known to every child in every Accidence. Our chief prepositions, and those not significant, but in composition be these. A, as, ago, agree, ado, abide, awash. Be, as besmirched, bespit, bethump, behead, betake. For, as forthink, forfeit, foreshow, forsake. Fore, as forecast, forestall, foretell. Gain, as gainsay, gainstand. Mis, as misdemeanor, misuse, mishap. Un, as unkind, unfriendly, untrue, unpleasant, unthrift. Thus much concerning composition, which I take to be a very necessary instrument for us to use, in the finding out of our right writing, because it bringeth in the simple English words whole, without any either loss or increase, or other metamorphosis, than upon such allowable causes, as I have alleged: and as for strangers enfranchised, it bringeth them in so whole, as the original is soon betrayed, though they lean somewhat to the English shore for their denizenship.

Of Derivation.

Derivation naturally succedeth composition. For as composition handleth the couplements of several whole words which by their uniting make a new one: so derivation handleth the couplements of one whole word, and some addition put to it, which addition of itself, signifieth nothing alone, but being put to the whole word qualifieth it to some other use, than the primitive was put to, as friend, being a primitive receiveth many additions, which yet signify nothing in the sense of their addition, though they change the force of friend, as friendship, friendly, friendliness, friends, friendeth, friended, friending, friendedst, and so on.

Wherefore I define that word to be a derivative in this place which altereth from the primitive or first head, by some addition, which addition of itself signifieth nothing alone, though in addition it qualify the primitive to some other use, than it is of itself, as God, godly, godhead, good, goodly, goodness, wasp, waspish, fellow, fellowship, fine, fineness, win, winning, pine, pineth, and so on. All derivatives be either English, as heaviness, woddish, wisest, witty: or they be strangers enfranchised, as temperance, contingency, argument, admonition. As for the stranger enfranchised derivatives, the tide of enfranchisement will examine them, because they be transported unto us wholly, though with some English habit, as the conveyance of their enfranchising.

Again, all our English derivatives be either substantial, or accidental. I call those derivatives substantial, which though they do come of some other, yet they themselves serve again for heads to others, such as the grammarians in our learned tongues call possessives, locals, materials, adverbials, and so on. As upland, uplandish, war, warrious, warlike, martial, martialist, virtue, virtuous, virtuously, England, English, and so on. I call those accidental derivatives, which concern numbers tenses, persons, and such properties as we call accidents in the learned handling of such words, as woe, woes, cry, cries, word, words, fish, fishes, tree, trees, agree, agrees, write, written, wrate, wrote, writeth, wrotest, writest, scribble, scribblest.

I shall not need to stand much upon proof, that derivation is a very needful instrument, for the furtherance of our right writing, considering the thing itself, being set down doth infer the profit therewithal, even to every mans sense, which is willing to see it. Wherefore leaving the profitableness thereof to their judgement, which shall prove it, I will first handle the Substantial, and then the accidental derivations, which both are much bound to the rule of proportion, because their derivative addition claspeth with the cadence and end of the pure original. For the better performance whereof this is to be noted that every derivable word endeth either in a vowel or in a consonant. As for the consonant ending, the addition to it is always one. In the vowellish ending, there is more variety, because the end thereof is sometime in a single vowel, sometime in a diphthong, and the single vowel is sometime silent, sometime sounding, all which give cause of observation in the putting to of the additions, as shall appear when the additions be known, which sometime bring forth adjectives, sometime substantives, sometime different numbers, sometime different persons. The derivate substantive terminations be commonly these, ness, as madness, ship, as workmanship, age, as cozenage, dom, as freedom, kingdom, th, as length, strength, wealth, health, truth, let, as chaplet, hood, as womanhood, ry as knavery, all, as refusal, denial, ance, as defiance, ing, as chambering, ty, as frailty, unless that come of the enfranchised substantives, meant, as punishment, yer, as lawyer, er, as writer, our, as demeanour. The derivate adjective terminations be commonly these, ly, as fatherly, monthly, wisely, an, as Italian, Grecian, Roman, ish, as Scottish, Campish, Kentish, where the single possessives, 's, as King's, Queen's, mother's. Neither do I see any cause were to use "his," saving after words which end in s, as Socrates his council was this, Platoes his was that, Aristotels his was this; er, as wiser, est, as wisest, ing, as loving, ed, as loved, ght, as taught, thought, en, as written, threaten, slain, contract for slayen, ashen, oaken, birchen, the first participles, the second materials; ous, as virtuous. The derivative number terminations, es, s, n, as muses, wives, words, tops, oxen. The derivative person terminations, est, as lovest, eth, as loveth, ith, as seeth. Which is when the simple endeth in the sharp, e, which may not be extinguished, as the silent is in thrive, thriveth, wiveth, edst, as lovedst. That foreign derivations have respect always to their own originals, as construction, persecution, argument, abundance, come not of construe, pursue, argue, abound, but of their own Latin primitives. That the plural, e, increaseth no syllables, but in the qualified, s, c, g, and sh, as uses, cases, causes, graces, spaces, spices, scourges, surges, wishes, aches. Where the passant, e, still resembleth the quick, i. That for the right taking of our termination in shon, we are to mark the natural foreign derivation very carefully, as action, passion, reflection, pronunciation, all which sound like to our shon. The derivatives of words ending in the qualifying, e, keep their forevowells sound, as bake, baking, take, taking. A number of such notes are there in our tongue, which I cannot intend to dwell on, because, I show but the way herein to others, if they list to beat the path, myself minding a further labor. In these and such like considerations doth derivation show itself very serviceable for the right writing of our English tongue.

Of Distinction.

This title of distinction reacheth very far, because it containeth all those characters, and their uses, which I called before signifying, but not sounding, which help very much, nay all in all to the right and tunable uttering of our words and sentences, by help of those characters, which we set down, and see in writing. The number of them be thirteen, and their names be Comma, Colon, Period, Parenthesis, Interrogation, long time, short time, sharp accent, flat accent, straight accent, the severer, the uniter, the breaker.

Of Enfranchisement.

All the words which we do use in our tongue be either natural English, and most of one syllable, or borrowed of the fore, and most of many syllables. Whereby our tongue seemeth to have two heads, the one homeborn, the other a stranger whereof either hath a great train following it. The causes of either be these. While the inhabitants of our country neither encumbered their brains with much study, neither busied their heads with great traffic, neither pleased their fancies with far travail, they vsed no other terms, than such as their own need enforced them unto, which being always fed with home occasions desired no help of foreign tongues, to utter those things with their words which were devised without their wits. But after that the desire of learning enflamed study, the longing for gain brought in great traffic, the delight to range, did cause men travail, new occasions brought forth new words, as either more cunning made way to more terms, or as strange devises did seek strange deliveries. For when the mind is fraught with matter to deliver, it is still in pain until it have delivered, and therefore to have the delivery such, as may discharge the thing well, and content all parties, both by whom and to whom the matter is delivered, it seeketh both home helps, where they be sufficient, and significant, and where the own home yieldeth nothing at all, or not pithy enough, it craveth help of that tongue, from whence it received the matter of delivery. Hence commeth it that we have our tongue commonly both stored and enlarged with our neighbors speeches, and the old learned tongues. A thing not proper to us alone, but common to all those, which use any speech in matters more than ordinary, nay in matters above the brutish. The necessity of these foreign words must needs be very great because the number of them is so very many, as it doth appear most plainly by the general table, where whole ranks of enfranchised terms do match together in one front. To whom we are much beholden, for that they vouchsafe to become English to serve our need, as their people are to thank our tongue, for returning the like help, in cases of like need, though their occasions to use ours be nothing so often, as ours to use theirs.

This benefit of the foreign tongue, which we use in making their terms to become ours, with some alteration in form, according to the frame of our speech, though with the continuing in substance of those words, which are so vsed, that it may appear both whence they come, and to whom they come, I call enfranchisement, by which very name the words that are so enfranchised, become bond to the rules of our writing, which I have named before, as the stranger denizens be to the laws of our country. And though the learned enfranchiser may sometime yield too much to the foreign, either for show of learning, or by persuasions that it is best so, yet he doth not well, considering that the very nature of enfranchisement doth enforce obedience to the enfranchisers laws, not to be measured by his bare person, but by the custom, reason and sound, of his country's speech. And as unadvised cunning, or not sufficiently advised, doth play too much upon the foreign string, being very loath to leave out any letter. But as it is very good for our English man to know the force of his own natural words, so it cannot be but good to know the foreign, if the right in writing, be any right worth weighing, signet, for a little sign, or seal, and cygnet, for a young swan, are descried that way, In sign, g, sounds not, in signify it doth.

Wherefore I think it best for the strange words to yield to our laws, because we are both their usuries and fructuaries, both to enjoy their fruits, and to use themselves, and that as near as we can, we make them mere English, as Justinian did make the incorporate people mere Romans, and banished the terms of both Latins and yieldings.

The use of this enfranchisement is as large in our tongue, as our need is in delivery, which being capable of all arguments, makes us subject to all words. I know no other division of enfranchised, words, than after the tongues from whence we borrow them, as Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, French, Spanish, Dutch, Scottish, and so on, which are freed amongst us, as the present need of either them with us, or us with them, doth sue to be incorporate.

But concerning the writing, me think the common men ought to yield to the use of those that be learned, least if they will not, they miss as foully in the writing of them, as they use them madly, in mistaking their meaning. And again the learned in their enfranchising them must needs have their eye, upon our proportion our accent, our derivation and such other, according to the reason , custom, and sound of our speech, reserving that to the stranger which our tongue cannot rule, as if ye once pass the third syllable, our tongue is husht. To prove any of these things by examples, which be every where so common, it shall not need. In this very chapter of enfranchisement, though I do not affect any extraordinary foreignism, yet how many foreigners am I constrained to use? Very, chapter, enfranchisement, affect, extraordinary, foreign, foreignism, constrained, use, in this last sentence do easily prove, that it were too foreign from the matter, to seek examples of foreign words. Wherefore to knit up this note of enfranchisement in few words, the English rule for writing, must be the right thereof, though it keep still many signs of a stranger, though yet incorporate with us, which rule the Italian seemeth to observe both wisely and well. And whereas the learneder sort, as Tully him self, allow not the interlacing of Greek words in Latin, the meaning of that their saying tendeth to this my conclusion. For if we have of our own, as significant and as proper, what need a rich man to be a thief? If we have either none or not so toward, why in our own need, shall we not enfranchise foreigners? If we mean to use them but for a time, or to some end the premunition will be our warrant. If we mean to make them ours, than let them take an other to be true to our tongue, and the ordinances thereof.

Neither must any learned man think it strange to write foreign Englished terms after an English ear, seeing it is not contrary to the custom of his country. Neither is it any abasing to learning, to lend the common man the use of his learning, though he keep the substance: neither yet both to see, and suffer the learnedest terms that he hath, to come under an English hand, seeing there is no dishonor meant them, where they be made peers to our own. Thus much at this time concerning the right writing of foreign words, when they become ours to use, and attire themselves to the English complexion, which we our selves think reasonable well of, and I as well as any, what account soever my thinking may be of, in such an argument, as I have thought thus much of.

Of Prerogative.

I said before, that those men, which will give any certain direction for the writing of any tongue, or for anything else, which concerneth any tongue, must take some period in the tongue, or else their rules will prove unruly. For every tongue hath a certain ascent from the meanest to the height, and a descent again from the height to the meanest, the one in the removing kind, as the other was in mounting. And as in the ascent it is not yet come to the assurance of note, because it is not thoroughly artificial, so in the descent it grows not worth the noting, because it becomes rude again, and in a manner withered. Hence commeth it, that Demosthenes his age is the prince of Greece, Tully's age the flour of Rome, whose tongues if learned writing had not commended to the tuition of books, they had been of small worth, nay of no remembrance, long before this day: as the spoken tongues of the same soils beginning in their days to change, be now quite altered, or at the least nothing like that, where the carnation grew, though full of good flowers in an other kind. Mark the Greek or Latin writers before, and after those men's ages, and by comparing them with these, ye shall see the odds that I speak of, and the one too rude to be ruled, the other departing from their rule, and yielding to a change. This period of my, and these risings to mount, as the dismounting again, till decay ensue, do give us to wit, that as all things else, which belong to man be subject to change, so the tongue also is, which changeth with the most, and yet continueth with the best. Whereupon it must needs be that there is some soulish substance in every spoken tongue, which feedeth this change, even with perceptible means, that pretend alteration. For if any tongue be absolute, and free from motion, it is enshrined up in books, and not ordinary in use, but made immortal by the register of memory.

This secret mystery, or rather quickening spirit in every spoken tongue, and therefore in ours, call I prerogative, because when sound hath don his best, when reason hath said his best, when custom hath effected, what is best in both, this prerogative will except against any of them all, and all their rules, be they never so general, be they never so certain. Whereby it maketh a way to a new change that will follow in some degree of the tongue, if the writers period be chosen at the best. I cannot compare this customary prerogative in speech to anything better, than unto those, which devise new garments, and by law are left to the liberty of devise. Hence commeth it in apparel, that we be not like ourselves any long time, though the best and most seemly (like an artificial rule) do bets please the wisest people. But by the way is it not a marvel, that the period of a tongue, being so quick an instrument, shall continue longer, than the fashion of apparel, being a thing so thought on, and sadly misformed? Upon the like liberty in speech, to be her own carver, come our exceptions against our general rules. Whereby prerogative seemeth to be a quicksilver in custom, ever stirring, and never stated though the general custom, as a thing of good stay do still offer itself to be ordered by rule, as a near friend to reason. This stirring quintessence the leader to change in a thing that is naturally changeable, and yet not blamed for the change, some not very well advised people, esteem as an error, and a private misuse contrary to custom, because it seems to be a very imperious controller, but they are deceived. For indeed this prerogative, though it check general conclusions, through private oppositions, yet that opposition came not of private men, but it is a private thing itself, and the very life blood, which preserveth tongues in their natural best from the first time that they grew to account, till they come to decay, and a new period grown, different from the old, though excellent in the altered kind, and yet itself to depart, and make room for another, when the circular turn shall have ripened alteration.

I take this present period of our English tongue to be the very height thereof, because I find it so excellently well fined, both for the body of the tongue itself, and for the customary writing thereof, as either foreign workmanship can give it gloss, or as home wrought handling can give it grace. When the age of our people, which now use the tongue so well, is dead and departed there will another succeed, and with the people the tongue will alter and change. Which change in the full harvest thereof may prove comparable to this, but sure for this which we now use, it seemeth even now to be at the best for substance, and the bravest for circumstance, and whatsoever shall become of the English state, the English tongue cannot prove fairer, than it is at this day, if it may please our learned sort to esteem so of it, and to bestow their travail upon such a subject, so capable of ornament, so proper to themselves, and the more to be honored, because it is their own. The force of prerogative is such as may not be disobeyed though it seem to disorder some well ordered rule, and cause some people wonder which way not the cause.

Wherefore when any note shall come in place quite contrary to the common not custom, but precept, then must we needs think of prerogatives power, a great princess in process, and a parent to corruption, but withal intending to raise another Phoenix from the former ashes. Which prerogative, who soever he be, that will not grant to any tongue, denieth it to have life, unless his meaning be, by registering some period in it of most excellent note to restrain prerogative, and to preserve the tongue, which he enrolleth by writing from the peoples profaning, by making of it learned, and exempting from corruption, as our book languages be, whose rule is so certain, as they dream of no change. This prerogative and liberty, which the people hath to use both speech and pen at will, is the case, and yet not blamed therefore, why the English writers be now finer, than they were some hundred years ago, though some antiquary, will take the old writing to be finer. But the question is wherein fineness standeth. So was Salust deceived among the Romans, living with eloquent Tully, and writing like ancient Cato.

But in one general word to touch both this prerogative, and my other six rules, with the very general method, wherewith I have traced the right of our writing, I do take them all to be very well grounded, neither is there anything at all, set down by me in way of observation concerning the tongue, be it never so strange, or rather seem it never so strange, but it is as artificial, and of as sure note, as the best language is. Which I shall not need in this so petty a principle to prove by particulars, neither to raise up again a sort of hoary headed writers, both grammarians and greater in the very best speeches, from out of their graves to subscribe to my rules. It is enough for me that the learned find this true in their own travail, and that the unlearned be content to believe the learned, that I utter a truth, though I bring not in a Priscian, or any Priscianlike orthographer or any of the twelve old grammarians likened to the nine muses and the three graces in the Latin tongue. Which tongue I rest still on, as commonly best known to our bookish people. That my country custom doth fight stoutly for me, that even sound itself is found of my side, and that the best reason, is my greatest friend, nay my very good Lady, no man I hope will deny me, being so ready to content him, but more ready to proceed, and perform my enterprise.

In this writing prerogative, the very pen itself is a great doer and of marvelous authority, which because it is the secretary alone, and executeth all, that the wit can deliver, presumeth therefore much, and will venture as far, as any counselor else, of what soever calling, though never against reason, whose instrument it is to satisfy the sight, as the tongue doth the ear. Custom, (whose charge prerogative is, as the pen is his courier) favoreth the pen exceedingly much, and will not stick to stand to it, that a dash with a pen may hold for a warrant, where both dispatch for speed, and grace for fair letter bid the pen be bold. Hence commeth it that so many zeds in our tongue are herd, and so few seen, for dexterity and speed in the currentness of writing. And as the pen can do this, so I do take it that our very tongue upon prerogative for smoothness, useth the z, so much for, s, and the weak, th, the v wish, o, and such others of the double sounds.

But it may be said that all our exceptions of most reasonable prerogative, may be well reduced to the general form, though I see some difficulty in altering that, which our custom hath so grasped. And it were too much almost to require that of any wise and learned man, so to arrest exceptions, chiefly in such a thing, as will not prove a standard, though he that wisheth this, seem to conceive such a thing, which though it were granted, yet would it break out again forthwith some other way, and cause a greater gap. Because no banks can keep it in so strait, because no strength can withstand such a stream, because no vessel can hold such a liquor, but only those banks which in flowing are content to be sometimes overrun, only those stays which in fury of water will bend like a bulrush, only that vessel which in holding of the humor, will receive some itself, as allowing of the relish. If any ignorant pen, either ignorantly, or upon ignorant ground, though pretending knowledge and good resolution, do offend against reason, and intrude upon prerogative, that is no right quill, neither avowed by me, as neither that current is to be called custom, which holdeth by usurpation, neither that cause to be counted reason, which hath other beginning, than right knowledge, or other ending, than the nature of that thing, will seem to admit, for whom that reason speaketh. And certainly when I consider the thing deeply, as my thoughts in this case have not been slight, neither mere superficial, I cannot see, when these imperfections be removed, which still company perfection, and by easy notes may easily be removed, with contentment of the wise, though with the wonder of some, which are blinded with their own, but that our tongues prerogative may full well take place, and the pen also his, considering our custom is become so orderly, as it may well be ruled, without either chopping or changing of any letter at all, or otherwise praying aid of any foreign invention, more than I have set down, and said enough of.

These be the notes which I promised to give for the ordering of our tongue, and the right writing thereof, wherein if I have hit right, the right will be my warrant, yea though it seem not right to some, wherein I comfort myself though I content not all. Aristides once made an oration to the people of Athens, and was wonderfully well like, even with some clapping of hands, or some popular shout, which general liking he so misliked, as he asked some friend, who stood next unto him, what ill he had spoken, because it was so liked, as if it were not possible for any good thing to win general liking, though the right be rightly honored of her own children, as our greatest and best orator in scripture speaketh. But as it shall please God, so shall my travail take place if it please, I will be glad, if it please not I will not fear, so the displeased party be no principal best. I would neither be an Herod to be eaten with ice for the puff of great allowance, neither yet a Cicero to shrink in Milo's right, for either crashing of armor, or cracking of speech, my argument being such, as will bear itself out, and my patience such, as can abide time till either other men see me and allow if I deserve, or myself see myself, and amend my own miss. It is an easy thing to find fault, and therefore much vsed, it is hard to judge right, and therefore not ordinary. If learned secretaries will heed their pen, and skillful correctors be chary of their print, neither will these things seem strange, neither prerogative be pointed at, but every right in writing be measured by right in judgement. And in very deed as I said before, all my notes do more concern the pen, and the dispatch there, than the print and his statuary form.

The conclusion of this treatise concerning the right writing of our English tongue.

This is that, which I had to say concerning the right writing of our English tongue. As for the right of my rules, I may not take upon me any more certainty, than the natural force of such probable directions doth ordinarily infer, which is to hold commonly true, and ever most likely, from which probability I wander not far, if myself may be judge. And yet I have diligently examined the original grounds of our enfranchised terms, which be one third part of our whole speech, though I hold altogether with our own writing, and follow not their primitive. For if the word itself be English indeed, then is it best in the natural hew, if it be a stranger, and incorporate among us, let it wear our colors, sith it will be one of us. I have rather sought, by such an induction to stir up some other to perform the enterprise, than hoped myself to leave it complete. For it may so fallout, that I have hit upon some truth, though not upon all, and again it may so be, that I have missed quite, and cut a wrong course, and yet by so doing, that I have opened a way unto some other, by giving such a light, either to amend my course if it like in part, or to shape a better by it, if it holly mislike. Further, in both I have been very careful never to depart from the custom of my country, because I desire either to please with liking, or to mislike without displeasing. For where any ordinary custom doth seem of long time to have made her own choice, and that upon good show, she will either like him that cleaves to her allowance, or not be displeased, where her self is not misliked. And if there be any hope to procure liking in such a thing as custom is to rule, it must needs come by following, and not by forcing. He enforceth, which quite altereth the common current already admitted in general use, both of ordinary letter, and customary writing; he followeth, which marketh that way wherein custom is most conversant, and pleaseth itself best upon likeliest presumptions: and withal observeth wherein any error intruding upon custom, by ignorant hands, may be easily stripped, and yet custom left clean to her allowed direction. This following of custom, with considerate observing, is a case of great hope, that the thing may like, which is so laid down, because in like attempts it hath always taken place, and betrayed her success by winning her desire. Enforcing to the contrary, or altering too far is almost desperate, if not altogether, because it hath always mist, with loss of labor where it offered service. What myself have won, by desiring to follow the custom of my country, and no where to enforce it, it must appear in time, which while it do, I must crave relief of courteous construction, and submit myself to judgement of those which can discern.

Of the nature of an Elementary institution.

As in dealing with the orthography of our English tongue, I have dwelt very long, because the argument is new, though the handling be old, so in all the rest, I purpose to be short, because the arguments be old, though the handling be new. Wherein I will keep that same course whereunto I am led by the nature of an institution, which is, to enter the learner so far, as he may compass with ease all that which followeth in the same kind, if his institution be perfected. Hence commeth it that so many books in the Latin tongue bear the name of institutions because they enter the young and untravailled student into that profession whereunto they belong. Now in the framing of a good and proper institution, which must be both natural to the profession whereunto it entereth, and appropriate to the learner, which it must enter: there be two considerations chiefly to be had, the one is of what compass the profession may be, whom the institution leadeth, the other of what kind. In the compass, we consider the use thereof to direct our life, whether it stretch far, or but some small way. In the kind we consider whether it be more in action, and less in contemplation, or contrariwise. For according to these two considerations the institution must be fashioned. Because the professions of divinity, law and physic, be of themselves very large, for variety of matter, and in use very needful, for their general service, their institutions therefore are commonly great, as a fair gate doth best beseem a sumptuous palace. The other faculties and Arts, as of argument under these, so of consequence less than these, need but short institutions, as a little door doth best fit a pretty small building. Again, where the end of any art, is wholly in doing, the institution would be short, for hindering of that end, by holding the learner too too long in musing upon rules, as in our grammar, which is the institution to speech, there would be no such length as is commonly vsed, because the end thereof is to write and speak, which when we do most, we learn our grammar best, being applied to matter, and not clogged with rules. As for the understanding of writers: that comes by years and ripeness of wit, not by rule of grammar, any otherwise than that grammar helpeth to the knowledge of tongues, whereby we understand the arguments hid in them. But I will then handle these things, when I deal with grammar, next after my elementary. In the meanwhile that rule of Aristotle must be precisely kept, whereby we are taught, that the best way to learn anything well, which must afterward be don, when it is learned, is still to be a doing, while we be a learning. In this last kind, whose rule is, to be short in precept, and much in practice, is this whole Elementary, and therefore, I am to deliver some pretty and few rules, picked out of the very substance of each principle, which to keep in practice, and then to set down, some well chosen presidents, whereupon to practise, neither laying on too much, to pass an institution, neither leaving out too much, to come too short of it, neither using but the best, to work the best effect. For an institution ought to be in lineament like the whole, as the infant to his parent, though not so full grown, in working forcible as a strong rennet in each part pithy to spread full in all.

Things of order be known by degrees, matters of stay are to be seen at once, which cannot be in this argument, being in order of consequence, in number of multitude. For when ye are once past the Elementary train, be not tongues of some number, where the learner hath desire, not to rest upon some certain? when ye are past the tongues, is not the after learning of infinite branches, though the main be within compass? Wherefore as in deepness of meditation I drew like to Plato, though in depth of judgement but his fleeting follower: So in order of delivery I depart from him and utter my wares by retailing parcels, which he did engross: when I had considered the general ascending method of all learning, which while it is in getting, mounteth up by degrees, but when it is gotten, doth spread through out the state as sinews, veins, and arteries do through a natural body, and withal maintains the state in full proportion of his best being, no less than the other do maintain the body, me thought I did perceive some great blemish in the whole body of learning, as Plato no doubt, in the ripping up, of right did find to be in government. For the plat of my Elementary, and what I have undertaken for the penning thereof, it is fully declared in the eleventh title of this same book: For the performance thereof in the bringing up of children, I have all the principles there named on foot, within my own house, under excellent masters. Wherein I do more than my Elementary requireth. For my Elementary course is to have the principles perfected, before the child deal with grammar. As what a toil it is to a grammar master when the young infant which is brought him to teach, hath no Elementary principle so grounded in him, as it may bear a building? Wherefore considering the learned tongues do require a foundation, and careful teachers some help of foretrain, I undertook to rip up all those things which concern the Elementary, a degree in teaching before the grammar train, by my own travail to ease a multitude of masters.

In the professors of learning, to whose soliciting this point is recommended, there be two things chiefly required. First that they study soundly themselves upon stuff worth the study, in order of right ascent, with minds given to peace. For sound learning will not so soon be shaken at every eager point of controversy, as the fleeter will. Orderly ascent groweth strong very soon, and a pacific conceit is a furtherer to that end, which is both privately minded, and publicly intended. The consent of the learned, and their quiet inclination is a great blessing to any common weal, but chiefly to ours in this contentious time, where the overwhetted minds work very small good to some worthy professions. The distraction of minds, into sects and sorts of philosophy, did a mighty great displeasure to the quietness of that people, where the distraction fell as it did our religion more, which speeding in that country, where those sorts were nourished, was never in quiet since.

The second point required in a learned student is not so much to seek his own advancement, as the things, which he professeth, which if it take place, himself comes forward, because he hath the things. If he seek his own advancement, and either forget the thing, if he have it, or care not for it, if he have it not, the want of the thing will weaken his credit, though it increase her own, as where the ignorant is blamed, there knowledge is allowed, though the allower be not learned. He that studieth soundly recommendeth good letters, by his own example: he that soliciteth other, who have authority to further advanceth them by advertisement, he that exerciseth his pen to help the best current, confirmeth his desire by the doing thereof. In this last kind my own labor travaileth to seek for uniformity, to strip away the needless, to supply some defects, to do my endeavor to help every one in as quiet a course, as I can temper my stile unto. And though sometimes I do spread upon cause in length of discourse, yet for the matter itself, which I will commend to the learner, I will be short and sound enough, and leave more to practice, than I will lay in precept. Thus much for the generality of learning, and the learned, to whose considerations I commit the soliciting, as to the magistrates the amendment.

But it may be replied again, that our English tongue doth need no such pruning, it is of small reach, it stretcheth no further than this Island of ours, nay not there over all. What though? Yet it reigneth there, and it serves us there, and it would be clean brushed for the wearing there. Though it go not beyond sea, it will serve on this side. And be not our English folks finish, as well as the foreign I pray you? And why not our tongue for speaking, and our pen for writing, as well as our bodies for apparel, or our tastes for diet? But our state is no Empire to hope to enlarge it by commanding over countries. What though? though it be neither large in possession, nor in present hope of great increase, yet where it rules, it can make good laws, and as fit for our state, as the biggest can for theirs, and oft times better too, because of confusion in greatest governments, as most unwieldiness in grossest bodies.

But we have no rare cunning proper to our soil to cause foreigners study it, as a treasure of such store. What though? yet are we not ignorant by the mean thereof to turn to our use all the great treasure, of either foreign soil, or foreign language. And why may not the English wits, if they will bend their wills, either for matter or for method in their own tongue be in time as well sought to, by foreign students for increase of their knowledge, as our soil is sought to at this same time, by foreign merchants, for increase of their wealth? As the soil is fertile, because it is applied, so the wits be not barren if they list to breed.

But though all this be true, yet we are in despair, ever to see ours so fined, as those tongues were, where public orations were in ordinary trade, and the very tongue alone made a chariot to honor. Our state is a Monarchy, which mastereth language, and teacheth it to please: our religion is Christian, which half repines at eloquence, and liketh rather the naked truth, than the neated term. What though? Though no English man for want of that exercise, which the Roman had, and the Athenian vsed in their spacious and great courts, do prove a Tully or like to Demosthenes, yet for sooth he may prove very comparable to them in his own common weal and the eloquence there. And why not indeed comparable unto them in all points through out for his natural tongue? Our brains can bring forth, our conceits will bear life: our tongues be not tied, and our labor is our own. And eloquence itself is neither limited to language, nor restrained to soil, whose measure the whole world is, whose judge the wise ear is, not in greatness of state, but in sharpness of people. And though foreign excellency were half in despair, must our own best be therefore unbeautified? It should not sure, it should perch to the height, if I could help it. We may aspire to a pitch, though we pass no further. The quality of our monarchy will admit true speaking, will allow true writing, in both with the bravest, so that it do please, and be worthy praise, so that it preach peace, and preserve the state. Our religion condemns not any ornament of tongue, which doth serve the truth, and presumeth not above. Nay is not eloquence, which commonly is carried from weight of matter, to folly in words, the great blessing of god, and the trumpet of his honor, as Chrysostom calleth S. Paul, if it be religiously bent? They that have read the old church story, do find that eloquence in the primitive church, overthrew great forces, bent against our faith, and enflamed numbers to embrace the same, when strength from the truth, joined with force in the word. Seek it to serve God, shun it to serve thy self, but where it serves thine own turn, with warrant from him.

But will ye thus break of the common conference with the learned foreign, by banishing the Latin, and setting over her learning to your own tongue. The conference will not cease, while the people have cause to interchange dealings, and without the Latin, it may well be continued: as in some countries the learneder sort, and some near cousins to the Latin itself do already wean their pens and tongues from the use of Latin, both in written discourse, and spoken disputation, into their own natural, and yet no dry nurse, being so well appointed by the milch nurse's help. The question is not to disgrace the Latin, but to grace our own. Besides all this to confirm a true ground with a trial as true, how many slender things, as oft times uttered in the Latin tongue, and other foreign speeches, which under the bare veil of a strange covert do seem to be somewhat for to countenance study, which if they were Englished, and the mask pulled off, that every man might see them, would seem very miserable, and make a story show of simple substance, and be soon disclaimed in of the parties themselves, with some thought at the least, of the old saving. Had I wist, I would not. and were it not then better to gain judgement throughout in our own English, than either to lease it, or to lame in the foreign Latin, or any tongue else? To be led on a long time with the opinion of something which in the end will prove plain nothing, or but a simple something? These and such considerations concerning the foreign and our English tongue make me thank the foreign for my furtherance in points, but withal to think how to further my natural. And therefore when occasion doth offer, as in these Elementary points, I am very well content to deal in English, not renouncing either Latin or other learned tongue, when my ascent in writing shall require their use.

Concerning the manner, which I use in writing, because the manner and the handling be so near cousins, as they both be the pencils to delivery, if there be any fault for hardness therein, that also proceedeth of choice, being careful to show from whence I come, that is from the students forge, who being still acquainted with strong stele, and pithy stuff in reading of god writers, cannot but resemble that mettle in my style. In penning to prove close and always with cause, and to cause that, which followeth to be suitable to that, which went before, to seek more for sinews and sound strength, than for waste flesh, is seemly for a student, and chiefly there, where he penneth for perpetuity, where the reader may at leisure, either look upon the book or lay it down by him, neither is so straitened, as to read all at once, or to forgo the book: or to hear all at once, or to hear it no more, which is commonly so in things but once handled in speech, and in books that be unwilling to betray their writer. Such discourses as be altogether popular, or upon present dispatch, and soon after to die, may well abide slight, because their life is short. And where they are to pass straight way from the pen to present use, and make no longer tarryance than for such and such a feat, or when they salute but the ear, and so to execution, without further delay, than the more plain at sudden, the more plausible in deed, and therefore in their kind very excellent perfect. Because the matters being such as serve to that end, the utterance must be such as may work to that end, without anything to muse on, where there is no time to muse in. But where musing must be, and the matter is no currier to pass away in post, another current must be kept, and yet the manner of delivery must not be thought hard, nor be compared with the other, which is of any other kind, considering it teacheth, and with such plainness, as the subject doth permit. For my manner of writing, if I miss in choice, I miss with warrant still, rather minding the matter with substance, than the person with surface. For howsoever it be in speech, in that kind of penning, which will be like to speech plain for plain argument, where performance must be present, and delivery without delay, certainly where the matter must bide the touch, and be tried by the hammer of a learned resolution there would be preciseness, there would be ordinate method, and delivery well couched, every word bearing weight, and every sentence being well, and even that will well weighed, where both time doth lend weighing, and the matter deserves weighing. Which kind of writing though it want estimation in some one age, by slightness of the time, yet may win it in another, when weight shall be in price, as some hundred years be written both to shrine saints and to authorize books.

For the general penning in the English tongue, I must needs say this much, that in some points of handling by the tongue, there is none more excellent than ours is. As in the teaching kind no work memory with delight, like the old leonine verses, which run in rime, it doth admit such dalliance, with the letter, as I know not any. In the stay of speech, and strong ending, it is very forcible and stout, because of the monosyllable, which is the chief ground and ordinary pitch of both our pen and tongue. For fine translating in pithy terms, either pare to, or passing the foreign quickness, I find it wonderful pliable, and ready to discharge a quick conceit, in very few words. For close delivery of much matter in not many words generally, it will do as much in the primitive utterance, as in any translation. Which close delivery in few words may seem hard sometimes, but only there, where ignorance is harbored, or idleness is the idol, which will not be entreated to crack the nut, though he covet the kernel. I need no example in any of these, whereof my own penning is a general pattern. Neither shall any man judge so well of these points in our tongue, as those shall, which have matter flowing upon their pen, that will be so uttered, or will utterly refuse him, which refuseth that utterance. For as in other tongues there is a certain property in their own dialect, so is there in ours, for our delivery, both as pretty and as pithy, as any is in theirs.

For the matter itself, which shall be the subject of any learned method, as I have said already, acquaintance will make it easy, though it seem to be hard, as the manner also, though it seem to be strange, if the thing itself, may deserve acquaintance, which will not appear before acquaintance. And a little hardness yea in the most obscure, and most philosophical conclusions, may never seem tedious to a conquering mind, such as he must have, which either seeks himself, or is desirous to see his country tongue enlarged, and the same made the instrument of all his knowledge, as it is of his needs. But I have been too tedious, my good countrymen and courteous readers, and yet not so, where no hast is enjoined, but to read at leisure, and not all at once: now am I to move my request unto you, which I mentioned at the first, or your friendly construction and countrymanlike favor. The reverence to learning, which allureth the good student to embrace her in his youth, and advanceth him to honor, by her presence in his age, will entreat the learned in general for me, for endeavoring myself to recover her right, by whose only authority themselves be of account.